Asian elephant
Asian elephant Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
A tusked bull Bandipur National Park, Karnataka, India | |
A cow and juveniles Yala National Park, Sri Lanka | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Proboscidea |
Family: | Elephantidae |
Genus: | Elephas |
Species: | E. maximus[1]
|
Binomial name | |
Elephas maximus[1] | |
Subspecies[1] | |
Asian elephant historical range (pink) and current range (red) |
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is a species of
It is one of only three living species of
The Asian elephant is the largest living land animal in
Taxonomy
Three subspecies are recognised:[8][9]
Subspecies | Distribution |
---|---|
Sri Lankan elephant E. maximus maximus Linnaeus, 1758 |
|
Indian elephant E. maximus indicus Cuvier, 1798 |
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Malay Peninsula, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam |
Sumatran elephant E. maximus sumatranus Temminck, 1847 |
Sumatra |
Bornean elephant E. maximus borneensis Deraniyagala, 1950 |
Sabah, Borneo |
A fourth potential subspecies, the
The following Asian elephants were proposed as
- Syrian elephant (E. m. asurus), proposed by Deraniyagala in 1950, was based on Bronze Age illustrations.[12][16]
- Chinese elephant (E. m. rubridens), also proposed by Deraniyagala in 1950, was based on a bronze statuette of an elephant.[12]
- Javan elephant (E. m. sondaicus), also proposed by Deraniyagala in 1950, was based on an illustration of a carving on the Buddhist monument of Borobudur.[12][13]
Evolution
The genus
Description
In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the
Skin colour is usually grey, and may be masked by soil because of dusting and
Size
On average, when fully-grown, bulls are about 2.75 m (9.0 ft) tall at the shoulder and 4.0 t (4.4 short tons) in weight, while cows are smaller at about 2.40 m (7.9 ft) at the shoulder and 2.7 t (3.0 short tons) in weight.
Distribution and habitat
Asian elephants are distributed throughout the
In
In 2011, the Asian elephant population in India was estimated at 26,000–28,000 individuals.[36] As of 2019[update], the wild population was estimated at 48,323–51,680 individuals.[37]
Ecology and behaviour
Asian elephants are
Cows and calves move about together as groups, while bulls disperse from their mothers upon reaching adolescence. Bulls are solitary or form temporary "bachelor groups".
Unlike African elephants, which rarely use their forefeet for anything other than digging or scraping soil, Asian elephants are more agile at using their feet in conjunction with the trunk for manipulating objects. They can sometimes be known for their violent behavior.[23]
Asian elephants are recorded to make three basic sounds: growls, squeaks and snorts. Growls in their basic form are used for short distance communication. During mild arousal, growls resonate in the trunk and become
Rarely, tigers have been recorded attacking and killing calves, especially if the calves become separated from their mothers, stranded from their herd, or orphaned. Adults are largely invulnerable to natural predation. There is a singular anecdotal case of a mother Asian elephant allegedly being killed alongside her calf; however, this account is contestable.[50][51] In 2011 and 2014, two instances were recorded of tigers successfully killing adult elephants; one by a single tiger in Jim Corbett National Park on a 20-year-old young adult elephant cow, and another on a 28-year-old sick adult bull in Kaziranga National Park further east, which was taken down and eaten by several tigers hunting cooperatively.[52][53] Elephants appear to distinguish between the growls of larger predators like tigers and smaller predators like leopards; they react to leopards less fearfully and more aggressively.[54]
Reproduction
Reproduction in Asian elephants can be attributed to the production and perception of signaling compounds called pheromones.[55] These signals are transmitted through various bodily fluids. They are commonly released in urine but in males they are also found in special secretions from the temporal glands.[55] Once integrated and perceived, these signals provide the receiver with information about the reproductive status of the sender. If both parties are ready to breed, reproductive ritualic behavior occurs and the process of sexual reproduction proceeds.[56]
Bulls will fight one another to get access to
Similar to other mammals, hormone secretion in female elephants is regulated by an estrous cycle. This cycle is regulated by surges in Luteinizing hormone that are observed 3 weeks from each other.[59] This type of estrous cycle has also been observed in African Elephants but is not known to affect other mammals. The first surge in Luteinizing hormone is not followed by the release of an egg from the ovaries.[59] However, some female elephants still exhibit the expected mating protocols during this surge. Female elephants give ovulatory cues by utilizing sex pheromones. A principal component thereof, (Z)-7-dodecen-1-yl acetate, has also been found to be a sex pheromone in numerous species of insects.[60][61] In both insects and elephants, this chemical compound is used as an attractant to assist the mating process.[62] In elephants, the chemical is secreted through urination and this aids in the attraction of bulls to mate. Once detected, the chemical stimulates the vomeronasal organ of the bull, thus providing information on the maturity of the female.[62]
Reproductive signaling exchange between male and female elephants are transmitted through olfactory cues in bodily fluids.[56] In males, the increase in frontalin during musth heightens their sensitivity to the (Z)-7-dodecen-1-yl acetate produced by female elephants.[58] Once perceived by receptors in the trunk, a sequence of ritualistic behaviors follow.[56] The responses in males vary based on both the stage of development and the temperament of the elephant.[56] This process of receiving and processing signals through the trunk is referred to as flehmen.[63] The difference in body movements give cues to gauge if the male is interested in breeding with the female that produced the secretion.[63] A bull that is ready to breed will move closer to the urine and in some cases an erection response is elicited. A bull that is not ready to breed will be timid and try to dissociate themselves from the signal.[56]
In addition to reproductive communication, chemosensory signaling is used to facilitate same-sex interactions.[63] When less developed males detect pheromones from a male in musth, they often retreat to avoid coming in contact with aggressive behaviors.[63] Female elephants have also been seen to communicate with each other through pheromone in urine.[56][63] The purpose of this type of intersex communication is still being investigated. However, there are clear differences in signaling strength and receiver response throughout different stages of the estrous cycle.[63]
The
Female Asian elephants sexually mature around the age of 10~15 and keep growing until 30, while males fully mature at more than the age of 25, and constantly grow throughout their life.[66][67] Average elephant life expectancy is 60 years in the wild and 80 in captivity, although this has been exaggerated in the past.[9] Generation length of the Asian elephant is 22 years.[68]
Intelligence
Asian elephants have a very large and highly developed
Threats
The pre-eminent threats to the Asian elephant today are the loss, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, which leads to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants. Asian elephants are poached for ivory and a variety of other products including meat and leather.[8] The demand for elephant skin has risen due to it being an increasingly-common ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine.[76][77]
Human–elephant conflict
In some parts of Asia, people and elephants have co-existed for thousands of years.
Development such as border fencing along the
As a whole, Asian elephants display highly sophisticated and sometimes unpredictable behaviour. Most untamed elephants try to avoid humans, but if they are caught off guard by any perceived physical threat, including humans, they will likely charge. This is especially true of males in musth and of females with young. Gunfire and other similar methods of deterring, which are known to be effective against many kinds of wild animals including tigers, may or may not work with elephants, and can even worsen the situation. Elephants that have been abused by humans in the past often become "rogue elephants", which regularly attack people with no provocation.[90][91][92]
Poaching
For ivory
The demand for ivory during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in East Asia, led to rampant poaching and the serious decline of elephants in both Africa and Asia. In Thailand, the illegal trade in live elephants and ivory still flourishes. Although the amount of ivory being openly sold has decreased substantially since 2001, Thailand still has one of the largest and most active black markets for ivory seen anywhere in the world. Tusks from Thai-poached elephants also enter the market; between 1992 and 1997 at least 24 male elephants were killed for their tusks.[93]
Up to the early 1990s, Vietnamese ivory craftsmen used exclusively Asian elephant ivory from Vietnam and neighbouring Lao and Cambodia. Before 1990, there were few tourists and the low demand for worked ivory could be supplied by domestic elephants. Economic liberalisation and an increase in tourism raised both local and visitors' demands for worked ivory, which resulted in heavy poaching.[94]
For skin
The skin of the Asian elephant is used as an ingredient in
Handling methods
Young elephants are captured and illegally imported to Thailand from
Disease
The EEHVs are members of the
Conservation
The Asian elephant is listed on
The World Elephant Day is celebrated annually on 12 August since 2012. Events are organized to divulge information and to engage people about the problems that the Asian elephant is facing.[105] August has been established as the Asian Elephant Awareness Month by zoos and conservation partners in the United States.[106]
In China, Asian elephants are under first-level protection. Yunnan province has 11 national and regional nature reserves. In total, the covered
In Thailand,
In captivity
About half of the global zoo elephant population is kept in European zoos, where they have about half the median life span of
Demographic analysis of captive Asian elephants in
In culture
Bones of Asian elephants
Asian elephants have been captured from the wild and tamed for use by humans. Their ability to work under instruction makes them particularly useful for carrying heavy objects. They have been used particularly for timber-carrying in jungle areas. Other than their work use, they have been used in war, in ceremonies, and for carriage. It is reported that war elephants are still in use by the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) to take control of Kachin State in northern Myanmar from Myanmar's military. The KIA use about four dozen elephants to carry supplies.[116]
The Asian elephant plays an important part in the culture of the
The Asian elephant is depicted in several Indian manuscripts and treatises. Notable amongst these is the Matanga Lila (elephant sport) of Nilakantha.[117] The manuscript Hastividyarnava is from Assam in northeast India. In the Burmese, Thai and Sinhalese animal and planetary zodiac, the Asian elephant, both tusked and tuskless, are the fourth and fifth animal zodiacs of the Burmese, the fourth animal zodiac of the Thai, and the second animal zodiac of the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka.[118] Similarly, the elephant is the twelfth animal zodiac in the Dai animal zodiac of the Dai people in southern China.[119]
See also
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Further reading
- Gilchrist, W. (1851) A Practical Treatise on the Treatment of the Diseases of the Elephant, Camel & Horned Cattle: with instructions for improving their efficiency; also, a description of the medicines used in the treatment of their diseases; and a general outline of their anatomy. Calcutta: Military Orphan Press
- Miall, L. C.; Greenwood, F. (1878). Anatomy of the Indian Elephant. London: Macmillan and Co.
- Williamson, J.H. (1950). Elephant Bill.
External links
- Save Elephant Foundation
- International Elephant Foundation
- ElefantAsia: Protecting the Asian elephant
- Asian Elephants at the Zoological Gardens of the World
- Elephant Information Repository Archived 11 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- WWF—Asian elephant species profile
- National Zoo Facts on Asian Elephant and a Webcam of the Asian Elephant exhibit
- Environmental Investigation Agency: Illegal Wildlife Trade : Elephants