Asian black bear
Asian black bear Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
At Wrocław Zoo, Poland | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Family: | Ursidae |
Genus: | Ursus |
Species: | U. thibetanus
|
Binomial name | |
Ursus thibetanus G. Cuvier, 1823
| |
Subspecies | |
7, see text | |
Asian black bear range in 2016 | |
Synonyms | |
Selenarctos thibetanus |
The Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), also known as the Indian black bear, Asiatic black bear, moon bear and white-chested bear, is a medium-sized
Characteristics
The Asian black bear has black fur, a light brown muzzle, and a distinct whitish or creamy patch on the chest, which is sometimes V-shaped.[4][5] Its ears are bell shaped, proportionately longer than those of other bears, and stick out sideways from the head. Its tail is short, around 11 cm (4.3 in) long.[6] Adults measure 70–100 cm (28–39 in) at the shoulder, and 120–190 cm (47–75 in) in length. Adult males weigh 60–200 kg (130–440 lb) with an average weight of about 135 kg (298 lb). Adult females weigh 40–125 kg (88–276 lb), and large ones up to 140 kg (310 lb).[6][7]
Asian black bears are similar in general build to
Although mostly herbivorous, the jaw structure of Asian black bears is not as specialized for plant eating as that of
In contrast to
On average, adult Asian black bears are slightly smaller than American black bears, though large males can exceed the size of several other bear species.[11]
The famed British sportsman known as the "Old Shekarry" wrote of how an Asian black bear he shot in India probably weighed no less than 363 kg (800 lb) based on how many people it took to lift its body.
Taxonomy
Ancestral and sister taxa
Biologically and morphologically, Asian black bears represent the beginning of the arboreal specializations attained by
Asian black bears are close relatives to
Subspecies
Subspecies name | Common name | Distribution | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Ursus thibetanus formosanus R. Swinhoe, 1864 |
Formosan black bear | Taiwan | This subspecies lacks the thick neck fur of other subspecies.[10] |
Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus Blanford, 1877 |
Balochistan black bear | southern Balochistan[22] | A small subspecies with relatively short, coarse hair, often reddish-brown rather than black.[10][22] |
Ursus thibetanus japonicus Schlegel, 1857 |
Japanese black bear | Honshū and Shikoku. Extinct on Kyushu. | A small subspecies weighing 60–120 kg (130–260 lb) for the adult male and 40–100 kg (88–220 lb) for the adult female. The average body length is 1.1–1.4 m (3 ft 7 in – 4 ft 7 in).[16] It lacks the thick neck fur of other subspecies, and has a darker snout.[10] |
Ursus thibetanus laniger Pocock, 1932 |
Himalayan black bear | the Himalayas[22] | Distinguished from U. t. thibetanus by its longer, thicker fur and smaller, whiter chest mark.[22] During the summer, Himalayan black bears occur in warmer areas in Nepal, China, Siberia, and Tibet at elevations of 3,000–3,600 m (9,800–11,800 ft). For winter, they descend as low as 1,500 m (4,900 ft). On average, they measure 1.4–1.6 m (4 ft 7 in – 5 ft 3 in) from nose to tail and weigh from 90–120 kg (200–260 lb), though they may weigh as much as 181 kg (399 lb) in the fall when they are fattening up for hibernation.[23] |
Ursus thibetanus mupinensis Heude, 1901 |
Indochinese black bear | Indochina
|
light-colored, similar to U. t. laniger |
Ursus thibetanus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823 |
Tibetan black bear | Distinguished from U. t. laniger by its short, thin coat with little to no underwool.[22] | |
Ursus thibetanus ussuricus Heude , 1901
|
Ussuri black bear | southern Siberia, northeastern China and the Korean peninsula | the largest subspecies[3][10] |
Until the Late Pleistocene, two further subspecies ranged across Europe and West Asia. These are U. t. mediterraneus from Western Europe and the Caucasus and U. t. permjak from Eastern Europe, particularly the Ural Mountains.[24]
Hybrids
Asian black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species, and have on occasion produced
Distribution and habitat
The Asian black bear once ranged as far west as
It typically inhabits
There is no definitive estimate as to the number of Asian black bears: Japan posed estimates of 8–14,000 bears living on Honshū, though the reliability of this is now doubted.[1] Although their reliability is unclear, rangewide estimates of 5–6,000 bears have been presented by Russian biologists. In 2012, Japanese Ministry of the Environment estimated the population at 15–20,000.[31] Rough density estimates without corroborating methodology or data have been made in India and Pakistan, resulting in the estimates of 7–9,000 in India and 1,000 in Pakistan. Unsubstantiated estimates from China give varying estimates between 15 and 46,000,[citation needed] with a government estimate of 28,000.[1]
Bangladesh
The Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh conducted an on-field survey of bears in Bangladesh from 2008 to 2010 that included Asian black bears. The survey was done in 87 different places, mostly in the north-central, northeastern and southeastern areas of Bangladesh that had historical presence of bears. The survey result says that most of the areas still has some isolated small bear populations, mainly the Asian black bears. According to the survey, the most evidence found relating to bears were of Asian black bears that included nests, footprints, local sightings, etc. There are many reports on the presence of Asian black bears in the central, north-central, northeastern and southeastern parts of Bangladesh.
Although Asian black bears still occur in different parts of Bangladesh, mainly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the population is very small. Conservationists fear that the species will soon be extinct in the country if necessary steps to protect it are not taken in the near future.[32]
China
Three subspecies of the Asian black bear occur in China: the Tibetan subspecies (U. thibetanus thibetanus), the Indochinese subspecies (U. thibetanus mupinensis), and the northeastern subspecies (U. thibetanus ussuricus), which is the only subspecies of bear in northeastern China. Asian black bears are mainly distributed in the conifer forests in the cold and temperate zones of northeast China, the main areas being Chang Bai, Zhang Guangcai, Lao Ye, and the Lesser Xingan Mountains. Within Liaoning province, there are about 100 Asian black bears, which only inhabit the five counties of Xin Bin, Huan Ren, Ben Xi, Kuan Dian, and Fen Cheng. Within Jilin province, Asian black bears occur mainly in the counties of Hunchun, Dun Hua, Wangqing, An Tu, Chang Bai, Fu Song, Jiao He, Hua Dian, Pan Shi, and Shu Lan. In Heilongjiang province, Asian black bears occur in the counties of Ning An, BaYan, Wu Chang, Tong He, Bao Qing, Fu Yuan, Yi Chun, Tao Shan, Lan Xi, Tie Li, Sun Wu, Ai Hui, De Du, Bei An, and Nen Jiang.[33] This population has a northern boundary of about 50° N and the southern boundary in Feng Cheng is about 40°30" N.[33]
Korea
In Korea, most of the Asian black bears live in the broad-leaved forest of the alpine region, more than 1,500 meters north of Jirisan. Korean National Park Service announced on April 15, 2018, that eight mother bears gave birth to 11 cubs. Six mother bears living in the wild gave birth to eight cubs. Two mothers that were being taken care by the nature adaptation training center in Gurye, South Jeolla Province gave birth to three cubs. Now, there are 56 Asian black bears living in the wild of Jirisan. If the Korea National Park Service releases three cubs born in natural adaptation training centers at September this year, the number of Asian black bears living in the wild will increase to 59. As a result, the restoration of the target of 50 Asian black bears, or the minimum remaining population, will be achieved two years earlier. It was a goal by 2020. Their next goal is to expand and improve the habitat and to increase the genetic diversity of the Asian black bears in Mt. Jiri.[34]
Siberia
In Siberia, the Asian black bear's northern range runs from Innokenti Bay on the coast of the
Taiwan
In Taiwan, the endemic subspecies of Asiatic Black Bear, the
Behavior and ecology
Asian black bears are
Asian black bears do not hibernate over most of their
Asian black bears have a wide range of vocalizations, including grunts, whines, roars, slurping sounds (sometimes made when feeding) and "an appalling row" when wounded, alarmed or angry. They emit loud hisses when issuing warnings or threats, and scream when fighting. When approaching other bears, they produce "tut tut" sounds, thought to be produced by bears snapping their tongue against the roof of their mouth.[15] When courting, they emit clucking sounds.[30]
Reproduction and life cycle
Within Sikhote-Alin, the breeding season of Asian black bears occurs earlier than in brown bears, starting from mid-June to mid-August. Birth also occurs earlier, in mid-January. By October, the uterine horns of pregnant females grow to 15–22 mm (0.59–0.87 in). By late December, the embryos weigh 75 grams.
Feeding
Asian black bears are omnivorous, and will feed on
Interspecific predatory relationships
The Asian black bear's range overlaps with that of the sloth bear in central and southern India, the sun bear in Southeast Asia and the brown bear in the southern part of the Russian Far East.[1]
Asian black bears seem to intimidate Himalayan brown bears in direct encounters. They eat the fruit dropped by Asian black bears from trees, as they themselves are too large and cumbersome to climb.[45]
Asian black bears are occasionally attacked by tigers and brown bears. Leopards are known to prey on bear cubs younger than two years old. Packs of wolves and Eurasian lynxes are potential predators of bear cubs as well.[3] Asian black bears usually dominate Amur leopards in physical confrontations in heavily vegetated areas, while leopards are uppermost in open areas, though the outcome of such encounters is largely dependent on the size of the individual animals.[46]
Ussuri brown bears may attack Asian black bears.[37]
Tigers occasionally attack and consume Asian black bears. Russian hunters found their remains in tiger scats, and Asian black bear carcasses showing evidence of tiger predation. To escape tigers, Asian black bears rush up a tree and wait for the tiger to leave, though some tigers will pretend to leave, and wait for the bear to descend. Tigers prey foremost on young bears.[47] Some are very tenacious when attacked: Jim Corbett observed a fight between a tiger and the largest Asian black bear he had ever seen. The bear managed to chase off the tiger, despite having half its nose and scalp torn off. He twice saw Asian black bears carry off tiger kills when the latter was absent.[48] Asian black bears are usually safe from tiger attacks once they reach five years of age. One fatal attack of a tiger on a juvenile Asian black bear has been recorded in Jigme Dorji National Park.[49] One Siberian tiger was reported to have lured an Asian black bear by imitating its mating call.[30] However, Asian black bears are probably less vulnerable to tiger attacks than brown bears, due to their habit of living in hollows or in close set rocks.[50]
Legal status
The Asian black bear is listed as a protected animal in China's National Protection Wildlife Law, which stipulates that anyone hunting or catching bears without permits will be subject to severe punishment.[16]
Although the Asian black bear is protected in India, due to being listed as vulnerable in the Red Data Book in Appendix I of CITES in India and in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act and its 1991 amendment, it has been difficult to prosecute those accused of poaching Asian black bears due to lack of witnesses and lack of Wildlife Forensic Labs to detect the originality of confiscated animal parts or products. Moreover, due to India's wide-stretching boundaries with other nations such as Pakistan, Tibet, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, it is difficult to police such borders, which are often in mountainous terrain.[16]
Five Asian black bear populations, occurring in Kyushu, Shikoku, West-Chugoku, East-Chugoku and Kii areas, were listed as endangered by the Environmental Agency in the Japanese Red Data Book in 1991. Small isolated populations in the Tanzawa and Shimokita areas of mainland Honshū were listed as endangered in 1995. Beyond recognizing these populations as endangered, there is still a lack of efficient conservation methods for Japanese black bears.[16]
Asian black bears occur as an infrequent species in the Red Data Book of Russia, thus falling under special protection and hunting is prohibited. There is currently a strong movement to legalize the hunting of Russian black bears, which is supported by most of the local scientific community.[16]
As of January 30, 1989, Taiwan's Formosan black bears have been listed as an endangered species under the Natural and Cultural Heritage Act on, and was later listed as a Conserved Species Category I.[16]
The Vietnamese government issued Decision 276/QD, 276/1989, which prohibits the hunting and exporting of Asian black bears. The Red Book of Vietnam lists Vietnamese black bears as endangered.[16]
The Korean Government designated the Asian black bear as
Threats
The main habitat threat to Asian black bears is overcutting of forests, mainly due to human populations increasing to over 430,000 in regions where bears are distributed, in the Shaanxi, Ganshu, and Sichuan provinces. 27 forestry enterprises were built in these areas between 1950 and 1985 (excluding the lumbering units belonging to the county). By the early 1990s, the Asian black bear distribution area was reduced to only one-fifth of the area that existed before the 1940s. Isolated bear populations face environmental and genetic stress in these circumstances. However, one of the most important reasons for their decrease involves overhunting, as Asian black bear paws, gall bladders and cubs have great economic value. Asian black bear harvests are maintained at a high level due to the harm they cause to crops, orchards and bee farms. During the 1950s and 1960s, 1,000 Asian black bears were harvested annually in the Heilongjiang Province. However, purchased furs were reduced by 4/5, even by 9/10 yearly in the late 1970s to the early 1980s. Asian black bears have also been declining annually in Dehong Dai and Jingpo Nations Autonomous Prefecture and the Yunnan Province.[16]
Poaching for gall bladders and skin are the main threats faced by Asian black bears in India.[16]
Although the poaching of Asian black bears is well known throughout Japan, authorities have done little to remedy the situation. The killing of nuisance bears is practiced year-round, and harvest numbers have been on the increase. Box traps have been widely used since 1970 to capture nuisance bears. It is estimated that the number of shot bears will decrease in time, due to the decline of old traditional hunters and the increase of a younger generation less inclined to hunt.[16] Logging is also considered a threat.[16]
Although Asian black bears have been afforded protection in Russia since 1983, illegal poaching, fueled by a growing demand for bear parts in the Asian market, is still a major threat to the Russian population. Many workers of Chinese and Korean origin, supposedly employed in the timber industry, are actually involved in the illegal trade. Some Russian sailors reportedly purchase bear parts from local hunters to sell them to Japanese and Southeast Asian clients. Russia's rapidly growing timber industry has been a serious threat to the Asian black bear's home range for three decades. The cutting of trees containing cavities deprives Asian black bears of their main source of dens, and forces them to den on the ground or in rocks, thus making them more vulnerable to tigers, brown bears and hunters.[16]
In Taiwan, Asian black bears are not actively pursued, though steel traps set out for wild boars have been responsible for unintentional bear trappings.[16] Timber harvesting has largely stopped being a major threat to Taiwan's Asian black bear population, though a new policy concerning the transfer of ownership of hill land from the government to private interests has the potential to affect some lowland habitat, particularly in the eastern part of the nation. The building of new cross island highways through bear habitat is also potentially threatening.[16]
Vietnamese black bear populations have declined rapidly due to the pressures of human population growth and unstable settlement. Vietnamese forests have been shrinking: of the 87,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi) of natural forests, about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) disappear every year. Hunting pressures have also increased with a coinciding decline of environmental awareness.[16]
South Korea remains one of two countries to allow bear bile farming to continue legally. As reported in 2009, approximately 1,374 Asian black bears reside in an estimated 74 bear farms, where they are kept for slaughter to fuel the demands of traditional Asian medicine.[53] In sharp contrast, fewer than 20 Asian black bears can be found at Jirisan Restoration Center, located in Korea's Jirisan National Park.
Relationships with humans
In folklore and literature
In Japanese culture, the Asian black bear is traditionally associated with the mountain spirit (
Asian black bears are briefly mentioned in
Attacks on humans
Although usually shy and cautious animals, Asian black bears are more aggressive towards humans than the brown bears of Eurasia
The Himalayan black bear is a savage animal, sometimes attacking without provocation, and inflicting horrible wounds, attacking generally the head and face with their claws, while using their teeth also on a prostrate victim. It is not uncommon to see men who have been terribly mutilated, some having the scalp torn from the head, and many sportsmen have been killed by these bears.
— A Book of Man Eaters, Chapter XVII Bears
In response to a chapter on Asian black bears written by Robert Armitage Sterndale in his Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon on how Asian black bears were no more dangerous than other animals in India, a reader responded with a letter to The Asian on May 11, 1880:[56]
Mr Sterndale, in the course of his interesting papers on the Mammalia of British India, remarks of Ursus Tibetanus, commonly known as the Himalayan Black Bear, that 'a wounded one will sometimes show fight, but in general it tries to escape.' This description is not, I think, quite correct. As it would lead one to suppose that this bear is not more savage than any other wild animal—the nature of most of the feræ being to try to escape when wounded, unless they see the hunter who has fired at them, when many will charge at once, and desperately. The Himalayan Black Bear will not only do this almost invariably, but often attacks men without any provocation whatever, and is altogether about the most fierce, vicious, dangerous brute to be met with either in the hills or plains of India. [...] These brutes are totally different in their dispositions to the Brown Bear (Ursus Isabellinus), which, however desperately wounded, will never charge. I believe there is no case on record of a hunter being charged by a Brown Bear; or even of natives, under any circumstances, being attacked by one; whereas every one of your readers who has ever marched in the Himalayas must have come across many victims of the ferocity of Ursus Tibetanus.
At the turn of the 20th century, a hospital in Srinagar, Kashmir received dozens of Asian black bear victims annually. When Asian black bears attack humans, they rear up on their hind legs and knock victims over with their front paws. Then they bite them on an arm or leg and snap on the victim's head, this being the most dangerous part of the attack.[57] Asian black bear attacks have been increasing in Kashmir since the Kashmir conflict. In November 2009, in the Kulgam district of Indian-administered Kashmir, an Asian black bear attacked four insurgents after discovering them in its den, and killed two of them.[58]
In India, attacks on humans have been increasing yearly, and have occurred largely in the northwestern and western Himalayan region. In the
Nine people were killed by Asian black bears in Japan between 1979 and 1989.[54] In September 2009, an Asian black bear attacked a group of 9 tourists,[60] seriously injuring four of them at a bus station in the built-up area of Takayama, Gifu.[61] The majority of attacks tend to occur when Asian black bears are encountered suddenly, and in close quarters. Because of this, Asian black bears are generally considered more dangerous than brown bears, which live in more open spaces and are thus less likely to be surprised by approaching humans.[62] They are also likely to attack when protecting food.[30]
2016 saw several attacks by Asian black bears in Japan. In May and June four people were killed by Asian black bears in
Livestock predation and crop damage
In the past, the farmers of the Himalayan lowlands feared Asian black bears more than any other pest, and would erect platforms in the fields, where watchmen would be posted at night and would beat drums to frighten off any interlopers. However, some Asian black bears would grow accustomed to the sound and encroach anyway.[65]
Of 1,375 livestock kills examined in Bhutan, Asian black bears accounted for 8% of attacks. Livestock predation, overall, was greatest in the summer and autumn periods, which corresponded with a peak in cropping agriculture; livestock are turned out to pasture and forest during the cropping season and, subsequently, are less well-guarded than at other times.[66]
Livestock killed by Asian black bears in Himachal Pradesh, India increased from 29 in 1988–1989 to 45 in 1992–1993.[67]
In the remoter areas of Japan, Asian black bears can be serious crop predators: the bears feed on cultivated bamboo shoots in spring, on plums, watermelons and corn in the summer, and on persimmons, sweet potatoes and rice in the autumn. Japanese black bears are estimated to damage 3,000
Asian black bears will prey on livestock if their natural food is in poor supply.[30] They have been known to attack bullocks, either killing them outright, or eating them alive.[62]
Tameability and trainability
Along with sun bears, Asian black bears are the most typically used species in areas where bears are used either in performances or as pets.[68] Asian black bears have an outstanding learning ability in captivity, and are among the most common species used in circus acts.[69] According to Gary Brown:
The Asiatic black bears are the comedians of the performing bears. They appear to appreciate applause and will intentionally move into their prescribed position late to attain laughter and attention. — Brown, The Influence of Bears on Humans[69]
Asian black bears are easily
Hunting and exploitation
Hunting
According to The Great and Small Game of India, Burma, and Tibet, regarding the hunting of Asian black bears in
Black bear stalking in the forests bordering the valley of Kashmir requires much more care than is expended in approaching brown bear on the open hills above, the senses of sight and hearing being more strongly developed in the black than in the brown species. Many of these forests are very dense, so that it requires the eye of an experienced shikari [hunter] to detect the dark forms of the bears while searching for chestnuts on the ground without the advancing party being detected by the vigilant animals.
— The Great and Small Game of India, Burma, and Tibet p. 367
The book also describes a second method of black bear hunting involving the beating of small patches of forest, when the bears march out in single file. However, black bears were rarely hunted for sport, because of the poor quality of their fur and the ease by which they could be shot in trees, or stalked, as their hearing was poor.[14][70]
Black bears here afford no sport; it is not shooting at all, it is merely potting a black thing in a tree... I can assure the reader that if he has a fondness for stalking, he will despise bear-killing, and will never shoot at them if there is a chance of anything else. If a man were to hunt for nothing else but bears, and kill a hundred in his six months' leave, he would not have enjoyed such real sport as he would, had he killed ten buck ibex or markhoor.
— The rifle in Cashmere p. 73–74
Although easy to track and shoot, Asian black bears were known by British sportsmen to be extremely dangerous when injured. Brigadier General R.G. Burton wrote of how many sportsmen had been killed by Asian black bears after failing to make direct hits.[62]
Today, Asian black bears are only legally hunted for sport in Japan and Russia. In Russia, 75–100 Asian black bears are legally harvested annually, though 500 a year are reportedly harvested illegally.[1]
After the introduction of
Traditionally, the
Products
Asian black bears have been hunted for their body parts in China since the Stone Age.[33] In the 19th century, its fur was considered of low value.[56][14] Grease was the only practical use for their carcasses in British India, and bears living near villages were considered ideal, as they were almost invariably fatter than forest-dwelling ones.[70] In the former USSR, the Asian black bear yielded fur, meat and fat of greater quality than those of the brown bear.[3] Today, bile is in demand, as it supposedly cures various diseases, treats the accumulation of blood below the skin, and counters toxic effects.[71] Products also include bone 'glue' and fat, both used in traditional medicine and consumed as a tonic. Asian black bear meat is also edible.[16]
References
- ^ . Retrieved January 16, 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7432-0584-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1992) [1972]. "White-chested, black bear". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears)]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 713–733.
- ^ Stirling, I., ed. (1993). Bears, Majestic Creatures of the Wild. Emmaus: Rodale Press. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved December 21, 2014.
- ^ "Asiatic Black Bear". Yadanarbon Zoo. Archived from the original on November 12, 2022. Retrieved November 12, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Brown, Bear Anatomy and Physiology
- ISBN 0-19-850823-9.
- ^ Endo, H., Taru, H., Yamamoto, M., Arishima, K., & Sasaki, M. (2003). Comparative morphology of the muscles of mastication in the giant panda and the Asiatic black bear. Annals of Anatomy. Anatomischer Anzeiger 185 (#3): 287–292.
- ^ a b Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus, Denver Zoo Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF). Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ a b c d e Baluchistan black bear Ursus thibetanus (G. Cuvier, 1823)
- ^ a b c Knight, C. (2008). The Moon Bear as a symbol of Yama: Its significance in the folklore and upland hunting in Japan. Archived October 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Asian Ethnology 67 (#1): 79–101.
- ^ Greenwood, J. (1862). Wild sports of the world: a boy's book of natural history and adventure. London: S.O. Beeton.
- ^ Bear Species @ Great Bear Foundation Archived April 13, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Greatbear.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-206-1162-7.
- ^ a b "Detailed Physiology Notes" with literature reports for the Asiatic black bear – Ursus thibetanus Archived 2011-09-30 at the Wayback Machine. Wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Servheen, C., Herrero, S., & Peyton, B. (1999). Bears: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland.
- ^ a b Herrero, S. (1972). Aspects of evolution and adaptation in American black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas) and brown and grizzly bears (U. arctos Linne.) of North America. Archived December 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Bears: Their biology and management: 221–231.
- ^ ISBN 0-04-500028-X.
- ISBN 0-89658-008-3
- ^ G. F. Baryshnikov and D. S. Zakharov. 2013. Early Pliocene Bear Ursus thibetanus (Mammalia, Carnivora) from Priozernoe Locality in the Dniester Basin (Moldova Republic). Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS 317(1):3-10
- PMID 18984857.
- ^ a b c d e f Pocock, R. I. (1941). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Mammalia Volume 2. Taylor and Francis, London.
- ^ Bears Of The World. "Himalayan Black Bear". Bears Of The World. Archived from the original on March 20, 2015. Retrieved March 20, 2015.
- ^ Baryshnikow, G. F. (2010). Middle Pleistocene Ursus thibetanus (Mammalia, Carnivora) from Kudaro Caves in the Caucasus Archived May 7, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS, Vol. 314, No. 1, pp. 67–79.
- ^ Hybrid Bears Archived December 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Messybeast.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ Torres, Dennis Alexander "Historical Review on the Spectacled Bear Captive Breeding in Venezuela" Archived 2013-05-27 at the Wayback Machine. cecalc.ula.ve
- S2CID 86055215. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 22, 2013. Retrieved October 26, 2009.
- ^ Hybrid Asiatic black bear/brown bear ("Emma") Archived September 24, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Animalsasia.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- S2CID 266804633. Retrieved January 15, 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Brown, Bear Behavior and Activities
- ^ クマ類の保護管理に関する レポート Archived June 26, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. env.go.jp (March 2013)
- ^ "Baseline Survey Report of Bears in Bangladesh. 2008–2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 7, 2016. Retrieved December 20, 2015.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on December 3, 2010.
- ^ Korea National Park Service Report, (2018-4-17),지리산 반달가슴곰 50마리 넘었다...올봄 11마리 출산 Archived June 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine,
- ^ "Formosan Black Bear". Bear Conservation. Archived from the original on July 17, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
- ^ 何宜 (March 13, 2014). "黃美秀與台灣黑熊 愛的三部曲". 台灣動物新聞網. Archived from the original on February 2, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2019.
- ^ JSTOR 3873015. Archived from the original(PDF) on October 9, 2022. Retrieved September 17, 2009.
- ^ Goodness, Tracie. "Ursus thibetanus (Asiatic black bear)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on December 20, 2014. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-3027-5. Archived from the originalon October 27, 2021. Retrieved October 13, 2009.
- ISBN 0-387-34807-7
- ^ Brown
- (PDF) from the original on April 25, 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2012.
- ^ Hwang, M. H. (2003). Ecology of the Asiatic black bear and people-bear interactions in Yushan National Park, Taiwan. Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota.
- ISBN 1-877743-07-0
- ^ Adams, A. L. (1867). "Chapter XI". Wanderings of a naturalist in India: the western Himalayas, and Cashmere. Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas. pp. 208–247.
- ISBN 978-1-4437-6235-9.
- ISBN 978-0-9532990-3-4.
- ^ Perry, R. (1964). "Chapter Eleven: Jungle Contacts-II". The World of the Tiger. Cassel & Company.
- ^ "Himalayan bear killed by tiger: Is it effect of climate change on habitat?". Kuenselonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-26. 2009. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2009.
- ^ Heptner, V. G.; Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Tiger". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 95–202.
- ^ Cultural Heritage Administration, (1982.11.20), 반달가슴곰
- ^ Asian Animal Protection Network Archived July 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Aapn.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ Kim Mi Young, Green Korea United, (2009-10-28), Vietnamese urge Koreans not to travel for bear bile Archived August 12, 2010, at the Wayback Machine,
- ^ ISBN 0-415-22441-1.
- ^ ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Ecological Heritage and Sacred Sites of India Archived July 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Ecoheritage.cpreec.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ a b Sterndale, R. A. (1884). Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon Archived September 29, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Thacker, Spink and Co, Calcutta.
- ^ Cornish, C. J., Selous, F. C., Johnston, H. H., Maxwell, H., (eds.) (1902). The living animals of the world; a popular natural history with one thousand illustrations. Volume 1: Mammals. Dodd, Mead and Company, New York.
- ^ Hussain, Altaf (November 3, 2009). "Bear kills militants in Kashmir". BBC News. Archived from the original on May 24, 2023. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
- S2CID 44707160. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 29, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2009.
- Japan Times. 2009. Archivedfrom the original on December 29, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
- ^ "Bear attacks tourists in Japan". BBC News. 2009. Archived from the original on January 25, 2020. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
- ^ a b c Burton, R. G. (1931). A Book of Man Eaters. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London.
- ^ McCurry, Justin (2016). "Warning after four people killed in bear attacks in Japan". The Guardian. Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
- ^ "Japan safari park worker killed in bear attack". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 2016. Archived from the original on April 17, 2018. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
- ^ The Intellectual observer: review of natural history, microscopic research, and recreative science, published by Groombridge., 1865
- .
- ^ Human casualties and livestock depredation by black and brown bears in the Indian Himalaya, 1989–98, N.P.S. Chauhan, Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248001, India Archived October 9, 2022, at Ghost Archive. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-09-26.
- ^ Brown, Use of Bears and Bear Parts
- ^ a b Brown, The Influence of Bears on Humans
- ^ a b c Brinckman, A. (1862). The rifle in Cashmere: a narrative of shooting expeditions in Ladak, Cashmere, Punjaub, etc., with advice on travelling, shooting, and stalking: to which are added notes on army reform and Indian politics. London: Smith, Elder. pp. 73–74.
- PMID 19138420.
- Brown, G. (1993). The Great Bear Almanac. Lyons & Burford. ISBN 978-1-55821-210-7.