Astrobiology
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Astrobiology is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events.[2] As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyond Earth.[3]
Research in astrobiology comprises three main areas: the study of
The field of astrobiology has its origins in the 20th century with the advent of
Regarding
The search for
Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets.[5] This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become the diverse array of organisms we see today. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology, for astrobiological applications.
Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research centres are present in many universities and research institutions around the world, and space agencies like
Overview
The term astrobiology was first proposed by the
While the potential for extraterrestrial life, especially intelligent life, has been explored throughout human history within philosophy and narrative, the question is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry;[10][11] planetary scientist David Grinspoon calls it a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown in known scientific theory.[12]
The modern field of astrobiology can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s with the advent of
In the 1980s and 1990s, the field began to expand and diversify as new discoveries and technologies emerged. The discovery of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, helped to clarify the feasibility of potential life existing in harsh conditions. The development of new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of stable isotopes, also played a significant role in the evolution of the field.
The contemporary landscape of astrobiology emerged in the early 21st century, focused on utilising Earth and environmental science for applications within comparate space environments. Missions included the ESA's
Theoretical foundations
Planetary habitability
Astrobiological research makes a number of simplifying assumptions when studying the necessary components for planetary habitability.
Carbon and Organic Compounds: Carbon is the
Liquid water: Liquid water is a common molecule that provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules, and is generally considered necessary for life as we know it to exist. Thus, astrobiological research presumes that extraterrestrial life similarly depends upon access to liquid water, and often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support liquid water.[17][18] Some researchers posit environments of water-ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hypothetical types of biochemistry.[19]
Environmental Stability: Where organisms adaptively evolve to the conditions of the environments in which they reside, environmental stability is considered necessary for life to exist. This presupposes the necessity of a stable
Energy source: It is assumed that any life elsewhere in the universe would also require an energy source. Previously, it was assumed that this would necessarily be from a sun-like star, however with developments within extremophile research contemporary astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the availability of an energy source, such as the presence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon that could provide a source of heat and energy.
It is important to note that these assumptions are based on our current understanding of life on Earth and the conditions under which it can exist. As our understanding of life and the potential for it to exist in different environments evolves, these assumptions may change.
Methods
Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methods within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments, to understand the limits of life, and the conditions under which life might be able to survive on other planets. This includes, but is not limited to;
Deep-sea extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that live in the extreme environments of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps.[23] These organisms survive in the absence of sunlight, and some are able to survive in high temperatures and pressures, and use chemical energy instead of sunlight to produce food.
Desert extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts.[24]
Microbes in extreme environments: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers[25] and polar ice,[26] and high-altitude environments.
Research also regards the long-term survival of life on Earth, and the possibilities and hazards of life on other planets, including;
Biodiversity and ecosystem resilience: Scientists are studying how the diversity of life and the interactions between different species contribute to the resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover from disturbances.[27]
Climate change and extinction: Researchers are investigating the impacts of climate change on different species and ecosystems, and how they may lead to extinction or adaptation.[28] This includes the evolution of Earth's climate and geology, and their potential impact on the habitability of the planet in the future, especially for humans.
Human impact on the biosphere: Scientists are studying the ways in which human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species, are affecting the biosphere and the long-term survival of life on Earth.[29]
Long-term preservation of life: Researchers are exploring ways to preserve samples of life on Earth for long periods of time, such as cryopreservation and genomic preservation, in the event of a catastrophic event that could wipe out most of life on Earth.[30]
Emerging astrobiological research concerning the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life utilise methodologies within planetary sciences. These include;
The study of microbial life in the subsurface of Mars:
Scientists are using data from Mars rover missions to study the composition of the subsurface of Mars, searching for biosignatures of past or present microbial life.[31] The study of subsurface oceans on icy moons:
The study of the atmospheres of planets:
Scientists are studying the potential for life to exist in the atmospheres of planets, with a focus on the study of the physical and chemical conditions necessary for such life to exist, namely the detection of organic molecules and biosignature gases; for example, the study of the possibility of life in the atmospheres of exoplanets that orbit red dwarfs and the study of the potential for microbial life in the upper atmosphere of Venus.[37]
Telescopes and remote sensing of exoplanets: The discovery of thousands of exoplanets has opened up new opportunities for the search for biosignatures. Scientists are using telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite to search for biosignatures on exoplanets. They are also developing new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of remote sensing to search for biosignatures in the atmosphere of exoplanets.[38]
Scientists search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations using radio and optical telescopes within the discipline of extraterrestrial intelligence communications (CETI). CETI focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as the Arecibo message, and computational approaches to detecting and deciphering 'natural' language communication. While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan, have advocated the transmission of messages,[39][40] theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens may raid Earth for its resources.[41]
Emerging astrobiological research concerning the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth utilises methodologies within the palaeosciences. These include;
The study of the early atmosphere: Researchers are investigating the role of the early atmosphere in providing the right conditions for the emergence of life, such as the presence of gases that could have helped to stabilise the climate and the formation of organic molecules.[42]
The study of the early magnetic field: Researchers are investigating the role of the early magnetic field in protecting the Earth from harmful radiation and helping to stabilise the climate.[43] This research has immense astrobiological implications where the subjects of current astrobiological research like Mars lack such a field.
The study of prebiotic chemistry: Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of the building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions. The study of impact events: Scientists are investigating the potential role of impact events- especially meteorites- in the delivery of water and organic molecules to early Earth.[45]
The study of the primordial soup: Researchers are investigating the conditions and ingredients that were present on the early Earth that could have led to the formation of the first living organisms, such as the presence of water and organic molecules, and how these ingredients could have led to the formation of the first living organisms.[46] This includes the role of water in the formation of the first cells and in catalysing chemical reactions.
The study of the role of minerals: Scientists are investigating the role of minerals like clay in catalysing the formation of organic molecules, thus playing a role in the emergence of life on Earth.[47]
The study of the role of energy and electricity: Scientists are investigating the potential sources of energy and electricity that could have been available on the early Earth, and their role in the formation of organic molecules, thus the emergence of life.[48]
The study of the early oceans: Scientists are investigating the composition and chemistry of the early oceans and how it may have played a role in the emergence of life, such as the presence of dissolved minerals that could have helped to catalyse the formation of organic molecules.[49]
The study of hydrothermal vents: Scientists are investigating the potential role of hydrothermal vents in the origin of life, as these environments may have provided the energy and chemical building blocks needed for its emergence.[50]
The study of plate tectonics: Scientists are investigating the role of plate tectonics in creating a diverse range of environments on the early Earth.[51]
The study of the early biosphere: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in the early Earth, and how these organisms may have played a role in the emergence of life.[52]
The study of microbial fossils: Scientists are investigating the presence of microbial fossils in ancient rocks, which can provide clues about the early evolution of life on Earth and the emergence of the first organisms.[53]
The systematic search for possible life outside Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor.
As of 2019[update], no evidence of extraterrestrial life has been identified.[58] Examination of the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, which was recovered in Antarctica in 1984 and originated from Mars, is thought by David McKay, as well as few other scientists, to contain microfossils of extraterrestrial origin; this interpretation is controversial.[59][60][61]
Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to some NASA scientists.[62][63][64]
On 5 March 2011, Research
Research outcomes
Elements of astrobiology
Astronomy
Most astronomy-related astrobiology research falls into the category of
There are also several less ambitious ground-based efforts underway.The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface.[71] Given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory,[72] is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.
An estimate for the number of planets with intelligent communicative extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the Drake equation, essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise:[73]
where:
- N = The number of communicative civilizations
- R* = The rate of formation of suitable stars (stars such as the Sun)
- fp = The fraction of those stars with planets (current evidence indicates that planetary systems may be common for stars like the Sun)
- ne = The number of Earth-sized worlds per planetary system
- fl = The fraction of those Earth-sized planets where life actually develops
- fi = The fraction of life sites where intelligence develops
- fc = The fraction of communicative planets (those on which electromagnetic communications technology develops)
- L = The "lifetime" of communicating civilizations
However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable limits of error any time soon. The problem with the formula is that it is not used to generate or support
Another active research area in astrobiology is planetary system formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of the Solar System (for example, the presence of Jupiter as a protective shield)[76] may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on Earth.[77][78]
Biology
Biology cannot state that a process or phenomenon, by being mathematically possible, has to exist forcibly in an extraterrestrial body. Biologists specify what is speculative and what is not.
Until the 1970s,
Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life.[82][83] This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number of possible extraterrestrial habitats. Characterization of these organisms, their environments and their evolutionary pathways, is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi Rhizocarpon geographicum and Rusavskia elegans,[84] the bacterium Bacillus safensis,[85] Deinococcus radiodurans,[85] Bacillus subtilis,[85] yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae,[85] seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'),[85] as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.[85] While tardigrades are not considered true extremophiles, they are considered extremotolerant microorganisms that have contributed to the field of astrobiology. Their extreme radiation tolerance and presence of DNA protection proteins may provide answers as to whether life can survive away from the protection of the Earth's atmosphere.[86]
Jupiter's moon,
The origin of life, known as
The
More than 20% of the
In October 2020, astronomers proposed the idea of detecting life on distant planets by studying the shadows of trees at certain times of the day to find patterns that could be detected through observation of exoplanets.[98][99]
Rare Earth hypothesis
The Rare Earth hypothesis postulates that multicellular life forms found on Earth may actually be more of a rarity than scientists assume. According to this hypothesis, life on Earth (and more, multi-cellular life) is possible because of a conjunction of the right circumstances (galaxy and location within it,
Missions
Research into the environmental limits of life and the workings of extreme ecosystems is ongoing, enabling researchers to better predict what planetary environments might be most likely to harbor life. Missions such as the Phoenix lander, Mars Science Laboratory, ExoMars, Mars 2020 rover to Mars, and the Cassini probe to Saturn's moons aim to further explore the possibilities of life on other planets in the Solar System.
- Viking program
The two
Norman Horowitz was the chief of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory bioscience section for the Mariner and Viking missions from 1965 to 1976. Horowitz considered that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival of life on other planets.[106] However, he also considered that the conditions found on Mars were incompatible with carbon based life.
- Beagle 2
Beagle 2 was an unsuccessful British Mars lander that formed part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission. Its primary purpose was to search for signs of life on Mars, past or present. Although it landed safely, it was unable to correctly deploy its solar panels and telecom antenna.[107]
- EXPOSE
- Mars Science Laboratory
The
- Tanpopo
The
- ExoMars rover
- Mars 2020
- Europa Clipper
Europa Clipper is a mission planned by NASA for a 2025 launch that will conduct detailed reconnaissance of Jupiter's moon Europa and will investigate whether its internal ocean could harbor conditions suitable for life.[120][121] It will also aid in the selection of future landing sites.[122][123]
- Dragonfly
Dragonfly is a NASA mission scheduled to land on Titan in 2036 to assess its microbial habitability and study its prebiotic chemistry. Dragonfly is a rotorcraft lander that will perform controlled flights between multiple locations on the surface, which allows sampling of diverse regions and geological contexts.[124]
Proposed concepts
- Icebreaker Life
- Journey to Enceladus and Titan
Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET) is an astrobiology mission concept to assess the habitability potential of Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan by means of an orbiter.[128][129][130]
- Enceladus Life Finder
Enceladus Life Finder (ELF) is a proposed astrobiology mission concept for a space probe intended to assess the habitability of the internal aquatic ocean of Enceladus, Saturn's sixth-largest moon.[131][132]
- Life Investigation For Enceladus
Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE) is a proposed astrobiology sample-return mission concept. The spacecraft would enter into Saturn orbit and enable multiple flybys through Enceladus' icy plumes to collect icy plume particles and volatiles and return them to Earth on a capsule. The spacecraft may sample Enceladus' plumes, the E ring of Saturn, and the upper atmosphere of Titan.[133][134][135]
- Oceanus
Oceanus is an orbiter proposed in 2017 for the New Frontiers mission No. 4. It would travel to the moon of Saturn, Titan, to assess its habitability.[136] Oceanus' objectives are to reveal Titan's organic chemistry, geology, gravity, topography, collect 3D reconnaissance data, catalog the organics and determine where they may interact with liquid water.[137]
- Explorer of Enceladus and Titan
See also
- Abiogenesis – Life arising from non-living matter
- Active SETI – Attempt to send messages to intelligent extraterrestrials
- Astrobotany – Study of plants grown in spacecraft
- Astrochemistry – Study of molecules in the Universe and their reactions
- Astrovirology – Study of viruses in a planetary sciences framing
- Cosmic dust – Dust floating in space
- Detecting Earth from distant star-based systems – Detecting Earth as an exoplanet
- Exoplanetology
- Extraterrestrial life – Life not on earth
- Extraterrestrial sample curation – Use and preservation of extraterrestrial samples
- Forward-contamination– Biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft
- Hypothetical types of biochemistry – Possible alternative biochemicals used by life forms
- List of microorganisms tested in outer space
- MERMOZ – Way of remotely detecting living matter
- Nexus for Exoplanet System Science – Dedicated to the search for life on exoplanets
- Planetary habitability – Known extent to which a planet is suitable for life
- Planetary protection – Prevention of interplanetary biological contamination
- Planet Simulator – Machine designed to study life in the universe
- Quiet and loud aliens – Concept in astrobiology
- Synthetic biology – Interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering
- The Living Cosmos
- Xenobiology – Science of synthetic life forms
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{{cite news}}
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General references
- The International Journal of Astrobiology, published by Cambridge University Press, is the forum for practitioners in this interdisciplinary field.
- Astrobiology, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that explores the origins of life, evolution, distribution, and destiny in the universe.
- Catling, David C. (2013). Astrobiology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958645-5.
- Cockell, Charles S. (2015). Astrobiology: Understanding Life in the Universe. NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-91332-1.
- Kolb, Vera M., ed. (2015). Astrobiology: An Evolutionary Approach. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-8461-7.
- Kolb, Vera M., ed. (2019). Handbook of Astrobiology. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-138-06512-3.
- ISBN 978-0358278146
- Dick, Steven J.; James Strick (2005). The Living Universe: NASA and the Development of Astrobiology. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3733-7.
- Grinspoon, David (2004) [2003]. Lonely planets. The natural philosophy of alien life. New York: ECCO. ISBN 978-0-06-018540-4.
- Mautner, Michael N. (2000). Seeding the Universe with Life: Securing Our Cosmological Future (PDF). Washington D. C.: Legacy Books. ISBN 978-0-476-00330-9.
- Jakosky, Bruce M. (2006). Science, Society, and the Search for Life in the Universe. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2613-0.
- Lunine, Jonathan I. (2005). Astrobiology. A Multidisciplinary Approach. San Francisco: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-8042-2.
- Gilmour, Iain; Mark A. Sephton (2004). An introduction to astrobiology. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83736-1.
- Ward, Peter; Brownlee, Donald (2000). Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. New York: Copernicus. ISBN 978-0-387-98701-9.
- Chyba, C. F.; Hand, K. P. (2005). "ASTROBIOLOGY: The Study of the Living Universe". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 43 (1): 31–74. S2CID 2084246.
Further reading
- Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; et al. (2016). Domagal-Dorman, Shawn (ed.). "The Astrobiology Primer v2.0". S2CID 4425585.
- D. Goldsmith, T. Owen, The Search For Life in the Universe, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2001 (3rd edition). ISBN 978-1891389160
- Andy Weir's 2021 novel, Project Hail Mary, centers on astrobiology.
External links
- Astrobiology.nasa.gov
- UK Centre for Astrobiology
- Spanish Centro de Astrobiología
- Astrobiology Research at The Library of Congress
- Astrobiology Survey – An introductory course on astrobiology
- Summary - Search For Life Beyond Earth Archived 24 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine (NASA; 25 June 2021)