Astronaut
An astronaut (from the
"Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek κόσμος).[3] Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (航天员, meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff").
Since 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space.[4] Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.
Definition
The criteria for what constitutes
As of 17 November 2016[update], 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km (62 mi) or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.[7] Of these,
As of 17 November 2016[update], under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Of eight
Terminology
In 1959, when both the United States and
Astronaut
A professional space traveler is called an astronaut.
The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.[19]
NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps.[20] The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.[21]
Cosmonaut
By convention, an astronaut employed by the
Coinage of the term космонавт has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "
Taikonaut
In Chinese, the term Yǔ háng yuán (宇航员, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[29][30] while hángtiān yuán (航天员, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, hángtiān (航天, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly[31] defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase tàikōng rén (太空人, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.[32]
The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China.[33] The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.[34] This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program.[35] The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih (趙裡昱) from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups.[36][37]
Parastronaut
For its 2022 Astronaut Group, the European Space Agency envisioned recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight.[38] The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than 130 centimetres or 4 feet 3 inches).[39] On 23 November 2022, John McFall was selected to be the first ESA parastronaut.[40]
Other terms
With the rise of
While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led
As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency:
- one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier)
- one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant
- one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration[44]
- one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA[45] (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)
- a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above 50 miles (80 km) is a space tourist (as of 2020[needs update], nobody has yet qualified for this status)
On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson.[46][47] The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson.
Space travel milestones
The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.[49]
The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.
The Soviet Union, through its
On 23 July 1980,
With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983,
On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.
On 30 May 2020, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft, Crew Dragon.
Age milestones
The youngest person to reach space is
Duration and distance milestones
The longest time spent in space was by Russian Valeri Polyakov, who spent 438 days there.[9] As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both
Civilian and non-government milestones
The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova[67] aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later,
The first non-governmental space traveler was
The first self-funded
Self-funded travelers
The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist.[74][75] Jared Isaacman was the first person to self-fund a mission to orbit, commanding Inspiration4 in 2021.[76] Nine others have paid Space Adventures to fly to the International Space Station:
- Dennis Tito (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001
- Mark Shuttleworth (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002
- Gregory Olsen (American): 1–11 October 2005
- Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006
- Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007, 26 March – 8 April 2009
- Richard Garriott (British / American): 12–24 October 2008
- Guy Laliberté (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009
- Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano (both Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021
Training
The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.[77] Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.[78][79] The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots.
Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for
Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle; further, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.[80]
NASA candidacy requirements
- The candidate must be a citizen of the United States.
- The candidate must complete a master's degree in a physical science, computer scienceor mathematics.
- The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft.
- The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical.
- The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications.
The master's degree requirement can also be met by:
- Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field.
- A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree.
- Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program.
Mission Specialist Educator
- Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.[81]
Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004; as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.[82][83] Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.[84] The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the
Health risks of space travel
Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including
A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that
On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.[104][105][106]
In October 2015, the
Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[109]
On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.[110][111]
Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the
In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely.[113]
Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[114][115]
A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.[116]
A 2020
Food and drink
An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 830 g (29 oz) mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about 120 g or 4.2 oz packaging mass per meal).
Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 US gallons (130 L) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three US gallons (11 L) per day.[120]
Insignia
In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.
At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver
Deaths
As of 2020[update], eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.
As of 2020[update], eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.
Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service.[121]
The
See also
- Airman
- Aquanaut
- Boundary of Space
- Cosmonautics Day
- List of astronauts by name
- List of astronauts by year of selection
- List of cosmonauts
- List of human spaceflights
- List of people who have walked on the Moon
- List of space travelers by name
- List of space travelers by nationality
- List of spaceflight records
- Lists of fictional astronauts
- Lists of spacewalks and moonwalks
- Mercury 13 – 13 inactive women astronauts
- Shirley Thomas – author, Men of Space (1960–1968)
- Space suit
- U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps
- United States Astronaut Hall of Fame
- Women in space
- Yuri's Night
Explanatory notes
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External links
- "The Human Body in Space". NASA. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- NASA: How to become an astronaut 101 Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- List of International partnership organizations Archived 26 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts
- collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar
- spacefacts Spacefacts.de
- Manned astronautics: facts and figures
- Astronaut Candidate Brochure online Archived 22 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine