Atmosphere of Jupiter
The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest
The atmosphere of
The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena, including band instabilities, vortices (cyclones and anticyclones), storms and lightning.[8] The vortices reveal themselves as large red, white or brown spots (ovals). The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot (GRS)[9] and Oval BA,[10] which is also red. These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic. Smaller anticyclones tend to be white. Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers. Located in the southern hemisphere, the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System. It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years. Oval BA, south of GRS, is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals.[11]
Jupiter has powerful storms, often accompanied by lightning strikes. The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water. They are sites of strong upward motion of the air, which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds. The storms form mainly in belt regions. The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth, and are assumed to be associated with the water clouds.[12] Recent Juno observations suggest Jovian lightning strikes occur above the altitude of water clouds (3-7 bars).[13] A charge separation between falling liquid ammonia-water droplets and water ice particles may generate higher-altitude lightning.[13] Upper-atmospheric lightning has also been observed 260 km above the 1 bar level.[14]
Vertical structure
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the
Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.[4] In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter.[3] As is generally the case, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a specific upper boundary.[16] The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface".[17]
The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause,[18] which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level). The pressure and temperature at the tropopause are about 0.1 bar and 110 K.[4][19] (This gives a drop of 340−110=230 °C over 90+50=140 km. The adiabatic lapse rate on Earth is around 9.8 °C per km. The adiabatic lapse rate is proportional to the average molecular weight and the gravitational force. The latter is about 2.5 times stronger than on Earth, but the average molecular weight is about 15 times less.) In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar.[4] In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.[20]
Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure.
Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as
3) was discovered.[17] This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere.[26]
Chemical composition
Element | Sun | Jupiter/Sun |
He/H | 0.0975 | 0.807 ± 0.02 |
Ne/H | 1.23 × 10−4 | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
Ar/H | 3.62 × 10−6 | 2.5 ± 0.5 |
Kr/H | 1.61 × 10−9 | 2.7 ± 0.5 |
Xe/H | 1.68 × 10−10 | 2.6 ± 0.5 |
C/H | 3.62 × 10−4 | 2.9 ± 0.5 |
N/H | 1.12 × 10−4 | 3.6 ± 0.5 (8 bar)
3.2 ± 1.4 (9–12 bar) |
O/H | 8.51 × 10−4 | 0.033 ± 0.015 (12 bar)
0.19–0.58 (19 bar) |
P/H | 3.73 × 10−7 | 0.82 |
S/H | 1.62 × 10−5 | 2.5 ± 0.15 |
Ratio | Sun | Jupiter |
13C/12C | 0.011 | 0.0108 ± 0.0005 |
14N |
<2.8 × 10−3 | 2.3 ± 0.3 × 10−3
(0.08–2.8 bar) |
38Ar |
5.77 ± 0.08 | 5.6 ± 0.25 |
22Ne |
13.81 ± 0.08 | 13 ± 2 |
3He/4He | 1.5 ± 0.3 × 10−4 | 1.66 ± 0.05 × 10−4 |
H |
3.0 ± 0.17 × 10−5 | 2.25 ± 0.35 × 10−5 |
The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole.
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are
The atmosphere contains various simple compounds such as
Earth- and spacecraft-based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the
Zones, belts and jets
The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored zones and relatively dark belts.[6] The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ).[6] The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted.[33]
The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds. Ammonia concentration is higher in zones, which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes, which in turn leads to their lighter color.[18] On the other hand, in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes.[18] The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts.[6] The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known, but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and carbon.[6]
The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows (winds), called
The origin of Jupiter's colored banded structure is not completely clear, though it may resemble the cloud structure of Earth's Hadley cells. The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling, whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling.[37] When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones, it expands and cools, forming high and dense white clouds. In belts, however, the air descends, warming adiabatically as in a convergence zone on Earth, and white ammonia clouds evaporate, revealing lower, darker clouds. The location and width of bands, speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable, having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000. One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23°N.[7][37] However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time (see "specific band"). These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century.[38]
Meridional circulation cells
Specific bands
The belts and zones that divide Jupiter's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics. They begin below the North and South Polar Regions, which extend from the poles to roughly 40–48° N/S. These bluish-gray regions are usually featureless.[33]
The North North Temperate Region rarely shows more detail than the polar regions, due to
The North Temperate Region is part of a latitudinal region easily observable from Earth, and thus has a superb record of observation.
The North Tropical Region is composed of the NTropZ and the North Equatorial Belt (NEB). The NTropZ is generally stable in coloration, changing in tint only in tandem with activity on the NTB's southern jet stream. Like the NTZ, it too is sometimes divided by a narrow band, the NTropB. On rare occasions, the southern NTropZ plays host to "Little Red Spots". As the name suggests, these are northern equivalents of the Great Red Spot. Unlike the GRS, they tend to occur in pairs and are always short-lived, lasting a year on average; one was present during the Pioneer 10 encounter.[48]
The NEB is one of the most active belts on the planet. It is characterized by anticyclonic white ovals and cyclonic "barges" (also known as "brown ovals"), with the former usually forming farther north than the latter; as in the NTropZ, most of these features are relatively short-lived. Like the South Equatorial Belt (SEB), the NEB has sometimes dramatically faded and "revived". The timescale of these changes is about 25 years.[49]
The Equatorial Region (EZ) is one of the most stable regions of the planet, in latitude and in activity. The northern edge of the EZ hosts spectacular plumes that trail southwest from the NEB, which are bounded by dark, warm (in infrared) features known as festoons (hot spots).[50] Though the southern boundary of the EZ is usually quiescent, observations from the late 19th into the early 20th century show that this pattern was then reversed relative to today. The EZ varies considerably in coloration, from pale to an ochre, or even coppery hue; it is occasionally divided by an Equatorial Band (EB).[51] Features in the EZ move roughly 390 km/h relative to the other latitudes.[52][53]
The South Tropical Region includes the South Equatorial Belt (SEB) and the South Tropical Zone. It is by far the most active region on the planet, as it is home to its strongest
The South Temperate Region, or South Temperate Belt (STB), is yet another dark, prominent belt, more so than the NTB; until March 2000, its most famous features were the long-lived white ovals BC, DE, and FA, which have since merged to form Oval BA ("Red Jr."). The ovals were part of South Temperate Zone, but they extended into STB partially blocking it.[6] The STB has occasionally faded, apparently due to complex interactions between the white ovals and the GRS. The appearance of the South Temperate Zone (STZ)—the zone in which the white ovals originated—is highly variable.[57]
There are other features on Jupiter that are either temporary or difficult to observe from Earth. The South South Temperate Region is harder to discern even than the NNTR; its detail is subtle and can only be studied well by large telescopes or spacecraft.[58] Many zones and belts are more transient in nature and are not always visible. These include the Equatorial band (EB),[59] North Equatorial belt zone (NEBZ, a white zone within the belt) and South Equatorial belt zone (SEBZ).[60] Belts are also occasionally split by a sudden disturbance. When a disturbance divides a normally singular belt or zone, an N or an S is added to indicate whether the component is the northern or southern one; e.g., NEB(N) and NEB(S).[61]
Dynamics
Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.[7]
The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter.[62] As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.[63]
Shallow models
The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s.
While these weather–layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets, they have serious problems.
Deep models
The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976.
The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion.[73] However it has major difficulties; it produces a very small number of broad jets, and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008, meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter.[73] One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band-jet structure.[63] It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models; occupying only the outer 10% of Jupiter's radius. In standard models of the Jovian interior, the mantle comprises the outer 20–30%.[74] The driving of deep circulation is another problem. The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces (moist convection, for instance) or by deep planet-wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior.[65] Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet.
Internal heat
As has been known since 1966,
The
Discrete features
Vortices
The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of
The anticyclones in Jupiter's atmosphere are always confined within zones, where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles.[79] They are usually bright and appear as white ovals.[8] They can move in longitude, but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone.[11] The wind speeds at their periphery are about 100 m/s.[10] Different anticyclones located in one zone tend to merge when they approach each other.[81] However Jupiter has two anticyclones that are somewhat different from all others. They are the Great Red Spot (GRS)[9] and the Oval BA;[10] the latter formed only in 2000. In contrast to white ovals, these structures are red, arguably due to dredging up of red material from the planet's depths.[9] On Jupiter the anticyclones usually form through merges of smaller structures including convective storms (see below),[79] although large ovals can result from the instability of jets. The latter was observed in 1938–1940, when a few white ovals appeared as a result of instability of the southern temperate zone; they later merged to form Oval BA.[10][79]
In contrast to anticyclones, the Jovian cyclones tend to be small, dark and irregular structures. Some of the darker and more regular features are known as brown ovals (or badges).[78] However the existence of a few long–lived large cyclones has been suggested. In addition to compact cyclones, Jupiter has several large irregular filamentary patches, which demonstrate cyclonic rotation.[8] One of them is located to the west of the GRS (in its wake region) in the southern equatorial belt.[82] These patches are called cyclonic regions (CR). The cyclones are always located in the belts and tend to merge when they encounter each other, much like anticyclones.[79]
The deep structure of vortices is not completely clear. They are thought to be relatively thin, as any thickness greater than about 500 km will lead to instability. The large anticyclones are known to extend only a few tens of kilometers above the visible clouds. The early hypothesis that the vortices are deep convective plumes (or convective columns) as of 2008 is not shared by the majority of planetary scientists.[11]
Great Red Spot
The Great Red Spot (GRS) is a persistent
The GRS rotates counter-clockwise, with a period of about six Earth days[88] or 14 Jovian days. Its dimensions are 24,000–40,000 km east-to-west and 12,000–14,000 km north-to-south. The spot is large enough to contain two or three planets the size of Earth. At the start of 2004, the Great Red Spot had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago, when it was 40,000 km in diameter. At the present rate of reduction, it could potentially become circular by 2040, although this is unlikely because of the distortion effect of the neighboring jet streams.[89] It is not known how long the spot will last, or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations.[90]
According to a study by scientists at the University of California, Berkeley, between 1996 and 2006 the spot lost 15 percent of its diameter along its major axis. Xylar Asay-Davis, who was on the team that conducted the study, noted that the spot is not disappearing because "velocity is a more robust measurement because the clouds associated with the Red Spot are also strongly influenced by numerous other phenomena in the surrounding atmosphere."[91]
The Great Red Spot's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records, typically varying by about a degree. Its longitude, however, is subject to constant variation.[98][99] Because Jupiter's visible features do not rotate uniformly at all latitudes, astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude. System II is used for latitudes of more than 10°, and was originally based on the average rotation rate of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s.[100][101] Despite this, the spot has "lapped" the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early 19th century. Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt, and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance.[102]
It is not known exactly what causes the Great Red Spot's reddish color. Theories supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or yet another sulfur compound. The GRS varies greatly in hue, from almost brick-red to pale salmon, or even white. The higher temperature of the reddest central region is the first evidence that the Spot's color is affected by environmental factors.[97] The spot occasionally disappears from the visible spectrum, becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow, which is its niche in the South Equatorial Belt (SEB). The visibility of GRS is apparently coupled to the appearance of the SEB; when the belt is bright white, the spot tends to be dark, and when it is dark, the spot is usually light. The periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals; in the 50 years from 1947 to 1997, the spot was darkest in the periods 1961–1966, 1968–1975, 1989–1990, and 1992–1993.[103] In November 2014, an analysis of data from NASA's Cassini mission revealed that the red color is likely a product of simple chemicals being broken apart by solar ultraviolet irradiation in the planet's upper atmosphere.[104][105][106]
The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot, a feature observed near Jupiter's north pole (bottom) in 2000 by the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft.[107] A feature in the atmosphere of Neptune was also called the Great Dark Spot. The latter feature, imaged by Voyager 2 in 1989, may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm. It was no longer present in 1994, although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north.[108]
Oval BA
Oval BA is a red storm in Jupiter's southern hemisphere similar in form to, though smaller than, the Great Red Spot (it is often affectionately referred to as "Red Spot Jr.", "Red Jr." or "The Little Red Spot"). A feature in the South Temperate Belt, Oval BA was first seen in 2000 after the collision of three small white storms, and has intensified since then.[109]
The formation of the three white oval storms that later merged into Oval BA can be traced to 1939, when the South Temperate Zone was torn by dark features that effectively split the zone into three long sections. Jovian observer Elmer J. Reese labeled the dark sections AB, CD, and EF. The rifts expanded, shrinking the remaining segments of the STZ into the white ovals FA, BC, and DE.[110] Ovals BC and DE merged in 1998, forming Oval BE. Then, in March 2000, BE and FA joined, forming Oval BA.[109] (see White ovals, below)
Oval BA slowly began to turn red in August 2005.
In April 2006, a team of astronomers, believing that Oval BA might converge with the GRS that year, observed the storms through the Hubble Space Telescope.[113] The storms pass each other about every two years, but the passings of 2002 and 2004 did not produce anything exciting. Dr. Amy Simon-Miller, of the Goddard Space Flight Center, predicted the storms would have their closest passing on July 4, 2006.[113] On July 20, the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging.[114]
Why Oval BA turned red is not well understood. According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez-Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country, the most likely mechanism is "an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA."[115] Some believe that small storms (and their corresponding white spots) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight.[116]
Oval BA is getting stronger according to observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007. The wind speeds have reached 618 km/h; about the same as in the Great Red Spot and far stronger than any of the progenitor storms.[117][118] As of July 2008, its size is about the diameter of Earth—approximately half the size of the Great Red Spot.[115]
Oval BA should not be confused with another major storm on Jupiter, the South Tropical Little Red Spot (LRS) (nicknamed "the Baby Red Spot" by NASA[119]), which was destroyed by the GRS.[116] The new storm, previously a white spot in Hubble images, turned red in May 2008. The observations were led by Imke de Pater of the University of California, at Berkeley, US.[120] The Baby Red Spot encountered the GRS in late June to early July 2008, and in the course of a collision, the smaller red spot was shredded into pieces. The remnants of the Baby Red Spot first orbited, then were later consumed by the GRS. The last of the remnants with a reddish color to have been identified by astronomers had disappeared by mid-July, and the remaining pieces again collided with the GRS, then finally merged with the bigger storm. The remaining pieces of the Baby Red Spot had completely disappeared by August 2008.[119] During this encounter Oval BA was present nearby, but played no apparent role in the destruction of the Baby Red Spot.[119]
Storms and lightning
The storms on Jupiter are similar to
Storms on Jupiter are always associated with
Every 15–17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms. They appear at 23°N latitude, where the strongest eastward jet, that can reach 150 m/s, is located. The last time such an event was observed was in March–June 2007.[123] Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55° apart in longitude. They significantly disturbed the belt. The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt's color. The storms moved with a speed as high as 170 m/s, slightly faster than the jet itself, hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere.[123][d]
Circumpolar cyclones
Other notable features of Jupiter are its cyclones near the northern and southern poles of the planet. These are called circumpolar cyclones (CPCs) and they have been observed by the Juno Spacecraft using JunoCam and JIRAM. The cyclones have now been observed for about 5 years, as Juno completed 39 orbits around Jupiter.[126] The northern pole has eight cyclones moving around a central cyclone (NPC) while the southern pole only has five cyclones around a central cyclone (SPC), with a gap between the first and second cyclones.[127] The cyclones look like the hurricanes on Earth with trailing spiral arms and a denser center, although there are differences between the centers depending on the individual cyclone. Northern CPCs generally maintain their shape and position compared to the southern CPCs and this could be due to the faster wind speeds that are experienced in the south, where the maximum wind velocities are around 80 m/s to 90 m/s.[128] Although there is more movement among the southern CPCs they tend to retain the pentagonal structure relative to the pole. It has also been observed that the angular wind velocity increases as the center is approached and radius becomes smaller, except for one cyclone in the north, which may have rotation in the opposite direction. The difference in the number of cyclones in the north compared to the south is probably due to the size of the cyclones.[129] The southern CPCs tend to be bigger with radii ranging from 5,600 km to 7,000 km while northern CPCs range from 4,000 km to 4,600 km.[130]
The mechanism for the stability of these two symmetric structures of cyclones is an outcome of Beta-drift, a known effect causing cyclones to move poleward and anti-cyclones to move equatorward due to the conservation of momentum along streamlines in a vortex, under the change of the Coriolis parameter.[131] Thus, cyclones forming in the polar regions may congregate at the pole and form a polar cyclone such as those observed on Saturn's poles.[132][133] The polar cyclone (the central cyclone in the polygons) also emit a vorticity field which can repel other cyclones (see Fujiwhara effect) similar to the beta-effect. The latitude where the circumpolar cyclones are positioned (~84°) fits, in calculations, the hypothesis that the poleward beta-drift force balances the equatorward rejection of the polar cyclone on the circumpolar cyclones,[134] assuming they have an anticyclonic ring around them, consistent with model simulations[135] and observations.[134]
The northern cyclones tend to maintain an octagonal structure with the NPC as a center point. Northern cyclones have less data than southern cyclones because of limited illumination in the north-polar winter, making it difficult for JunoCam to obtain accurate measurements of northern CPC positions at each perijove (53 days), but JIRAM is able to collect enough data to understand the northern CPCs. The limited illumination makes it difficult to see the northern central cyclone, but by making four orbits, the NPC can be partially seen and the octagonal structure of the cyclones can be identified. Limited illumination also makes it difficult to view the motion of the cyclones, but early observations show that the NPC is offset from the pole by about 0.5˚ and the CPCs generally maintained their position around the center. Despite data being harder to obtain, it has been observed that the northern CPCs have a drift rate of about 1˚ to 2.5˚ per perijove to the west. The seventh cyclone in the north (n7) drifts a little more than the others and this is due to an anticyclonic white oval (AWO) that pulls it farther from the NPC, which causes the octagonal shape to be slightly distorted.
The instantaneous locations of the south polar cyclones have been tracked for 5 years by the
The circumpolar cyclones have different morphologies, especially in the north, where cyclones have a "filled" or "chaotic" structure. The inner part of the "chaotic" cyclones have small-scale cloud streaks and flecks. The "filled" cyclones have a sharply-bound, lobate area that is bright white near the edge with a dark inner portion. There are four "filled" cyclones and four "chaotic" cyclones in the north. The southern cyclones all have an extensive fine-scale spiral structure on their outside but they all differ in size and shape. There is very little observation of the cyclones due to low sun angles and a haze that is typically over the atmosphere but what little has been observed shows the cyclones to be a reddish color.
Disturbances
The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time. One particular class of disruption are long-lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone, normally referred to as "South Tropical Disturbances" (STD). The longest lived STD in recorded history was followed from 1901 until 1939, having been first seen by Percy B. Molesworth on February 28, 1901. It took the form of darkening over part of the normally bright South Tropical zone. Several similar disturbances in the South Tropical Zone have been recorded since then.[141]
Hot spots
Some of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots. In them, the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption. The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm.
The origin of hot spots is not clear. They can be either
The possibility of life
In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment proved that the combination of lightning and compounds existing in the primitive Earth's atmosphere can form organic matter (including amino acids), which can be used as the cornerstone of life. The simulated atmosphere consists of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen molecules; all of these substances are found in today's Jupiter atmosphere. Jupiter's atmosphere has a strong vertical air flow that carries these compounds into lower regions. But there are higher temperatures inside Jupiter, which will decompose these chemicals and hinder the formation of life similar to Earth.[142] This was speculated by Carl Sagan and Edwin E. Salpeter.
Observational history
Early modern astronomers, using small telescopes, recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter's atmosphere.[25] Their descriptive terms—belts and zones, brown spots and red spots, plumes, barges, festoons, and streamers—are still used.[143] Other terms such as vorticity, vertical motion, cloud heights have entered in use later, in the 20th century.[25]
The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth-based telescopes were taken by the
Today, astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope. These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances, but that, overall, it is remarkably stable.
The
Great Red Spot studies
The first sighting of the
A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican.[147][148] It is a part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes, the creation of all of them overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy. Creti's painting is the first known to depict the GRS as red. No Jovian feature was officially described as red before the late 19th century.[148]
The present GRS was first seen only after 1830 and well-studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879. A 118-year gap separates the observations made after 1830 from its 17th-century discovery; whether the original spot dissipated and re-formed, whether it faded, or even if the observational record was simply poor are unknown.[103] The older spots had a short observational history and slower motion than that of the modern spot, which make their identity unlikely.[147]
On February 25, 1979, when the Voyager 1 spacecraft was 9.2 million kilometers from Jupiter it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot back to Earth. Cloud details as small as 160 km across were visible. The colorful, wavy cloud pattern seen to the west (left) of the GRS is the spot's wake region, where extraordinarily complex and variable cloud motions are observed.[149]
White ovals
The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939. They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation, but contracted rapidly during their first decade; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965.[150] Although they originated as segments of the STZ, they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt, suggesting that they moved north, "digging" a niche into the STB.[151] Indeed, much like the GRS, their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries, with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south.[150]
The longitudinal movement of the ovals seemed to be influenced by two factors: Jupiter's position in its
During the Voyager fly-bys, the ovals extended roughly 9000 km from east to west, 5000 km from north to south, and rotated every five days (compared to six for the GRS at the time).[154]
See also
- Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
- larger than Jupiter)
- atmospheric-entry probe)
- Juno probe
- 2009 Jupiter impact event
- 2010 Jupiter impact event
- Ulysses (spacecraft)
- Voyager 1, Voyager 2
Notes
- ^ The scale height sh is defined as sh = RT/(Mgj), where R = 8.31 J/mol/K is the gas constant, M ≈ 0.0023 kg/mol is the average molar mass in the Jovian atmosphere,[4] T is temperature and gj ≈ 25 m/s2 is the gravitational acceleration at the surface of Jupiter. As the temperature varies from 110 K in the tropopause up to 1000 K in the thermosphere,[4] the scale height can assume values from 15 to 150 km.
- ^ The Galileo atmospheric probe failed to measure the deep abundance of oxygen, because the water concentration continued to increase down to the pressure level of 22 bar, when it ceased operating. While the actually measured oxygen abundances are much lower than the solar value, the observed rapid increase of water content of the atmosphere with depth makes it highly likely that the deep abundance of oxygen indeed exceeds the solar value by a factor of about 3—much like other elements.[2]
- clathrate hydrates in water ice.[2]
- ^ NASA's Hubble Space Telescope recorded on 25 August 2020, a storm traveling around the planet at 350 miles per hour (560 km/h).[155] In addition, researches from the California Institute of Technology reported that storms on Jupiter are similar to those on Earth, which form close to the equator, then move towards the poles. However, Jupiter's storms do not experience any friction from the land or oceans; hence, they drift until they reach the poles, which generate the so-called polygon storms.[156]
References
- ^ "Hubble takes close-up portrait of Jupiter". spacetelescope.org. ESO/Hubble Media. 6 April 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Atreya Mahaffy Niemann et al. 2003.
- ^ a b c d Guillot (1999)
- ^ a b c d e f g Sieff et al. (1998)
- ^ Atreya & Wong 2005.
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Further reading
- [Numerous authors] (1999). Beatty, Kelly J.; Peterson, Carolyn Collins; Chaiki, Andrew (eds.). The New Solar System (4th ed.). Massachusetts: Sky Publishing Corporation. OCLC 39464951.
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- Yang, Sarah (April 21, 2004). "Researcher predicts global climate change on Jupiter as giant planet's spots disappear". UC Berkeley News. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
- Youssef, Ashraf; Marcus, Philip S. (2003). "The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger". Icarus. 162 (1): 74–93. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (1975). "Jupiter's atmospheric circulation" (PDF). Nature. 257 (5529): 778. S2CID 43539227.
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- Williams, Gareth P. (1997). "Planetary vortices and Jupiter's vertical structure" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 102 (E4): 9303–9308. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (1996). "Jovian Dynamics. Part I: Vortex stability, structure, and genesis" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 53 (18): 2685–2734. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (2002). "Jovian Dynamics.Part II: The genesis and equilibration of vortex sets" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 59 (8): 1356–1370. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (2003). "Jovian Dynamics, Part III: Multiple, migrating, and equatorial jets" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 60 (10): 1270–1296. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (2003). "Super Circulations" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 84 (9): 1190.
- Williams, Gareth P. (2003). "Barotropic instability and equatorial superrotation" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 60 (17): 2136–2152. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (2003). "Jet sets" (PDF). Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. 81 (3): 439–476. .
- Williams, Gareth P. (2006). "Equatorial Superrotation and Barotropic Instability: Static Stability Variants" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 63 (5): 1548–1557. .
External links
- of Jupiter's atmospheric activity from 19 December 2014 to 31 March 2015 from amateur astronomer images
- The Atmosphere