Atomic Age
History of technology |
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The Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first
While
In 1973, concerning a flourishing nuclear power industry, the
By the late 1970s, nuclear power had suffered a remarkable international destabilization, as it was faced with economic difficulties and widespread public opposition, coming to a head with the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, and the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, both of which adversely affected the nuclear power industry for many decades.[5]
Early years
In 1901,
The concept of a
In 1945, the pocketbook The Atomic Age heralded the untapped atomic power in everyday objects and depicted a future where
World War II
The phrase Atomic Age was coined by
In 1949, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission chairman,
1950s
The phrase gained popularity as a feeling of nuclear optimism emerged in the 1950s in which it was believed that all power generators in the future would be atomic in nature. The
This included even cars, leading Ford to display the Ford Nucleon concept car to the public in 1958. There was also the promise of golf balls which could always be found and nuclear-powered aircraft, which the U.S. federal government even spent US$1.5 billion researching.[2] Nuclear policymaking became almost a collective technocratic fantasy, or at least was driven by fantasy:[16]
The very idea of splitting the atom had an almost magical grip on the imaginations of inventors and policymakers. As soon as someone said—in an even mildly credible way—that these things could be done, then people quickly convinced themselves ... that they would be done.[16]
In the US, military planners "believed that demonstrating the civilian applications of the atom would also affirm the American system of private enterprise, showcase the expertise of scientists, increase personal living standards, and defend the democratic lifestyle against communism".[17]
Some media reports predicted that thanks to the giant nuclear power stations of the near future electricity would soon become much cheaper and that electricity meters would be removed, because power would be "too cheap to meter."[18]
When the Shippingport reactor went online in 1957 it produced electricity at a cost roughly ten times that of coal-fired generation. Scientists at the AEC's own Brookhaven Laboratory "wrote a 1958 report describing accident scenarios in which 3,000 people would die immediately, with another 40,000 injured".[19]
However Shippingport was an experimental reactor using highly enriched uranium (unlike most power reactors) and originally intended for a (cancelled) nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Kenneth Nichols, a consultant for the Connecticut Yankee and Yankee Rowe nuclear power stations, wrote that while considered "experimental" and not expected to be competitive with coal and oil, they "became competitive because of inflation ... and the large increase in price of coal and oil." He wrote that for nuclear power stations the capital cost is the major cost factor over the life of the plant, hence "antinukes" try to increase costs and building time with changing regulations and lengthy hearings, so that "it takes almost twice as long to build a (U.S.-designed boiling-water or pressurised water) atomic power plant in the United States as in France, Japan, Taiwan or South Korea." French pressurised-water nuclear plants produce 60% of their electric power, and have proven to be much cheaper than oil or coal.[20]
Fear of possible atomic attack from the Soviet Union caused U.S. school children to participate in "duck and cover" civil defense drills.[21]
Atomic City
During the 1950s, Las Vegas, Nevada, earned the nickname "Atomic City" for becoming a hotspot where tourists would gather to watch above-ground nuclear weapons tests taking place at Nevada Test Site. Following the detonation of Able, one of the first atomic bombs dropped at the Nevada Test Site, the Las Vegas Chamber of Commerce began advertising the tests as an entertainment spectacle to tourists.
The detonations proved popular and casinos throughout the city capitalised on the tests by advertising hotel rooms or rooftops which offered views of the testing site or by planning "Dawn Bomb Parties" where people would come together to celebrate the detonations.[22] Most parties started at midnight and musicians would perform at the venues until 4:00 a.m. when the party would briefly stop so guests could silently watch the detonation. Some casinos capitalised on the tests further by creating so called "atomic cocktails", a mixture of vodka, cognac, sherry and champagne.[23]
Meanwhile, groups of tourists would drive out into the desert with family or friends to watch the detonations.
Despite the health risks associated with nuclear fallout, tourists and viewers were told to simply "shower". Later on, however, anyone who had worked at the testing site or lived in areas exposed to nuclear fallout fell ill and had higher chances of developing cancer or suffering pre-mature deaths.[24]
1960s
By exploiting the peaceful uses of the "friendly atom" in medical applications, earth removal and, subsequently, in nuclear power plants, the nuclear industry and government sought to allay public fears about nuclear technology and promote the acceptance of
Project Plowshare "was named directly from the Bible itself, specifically Micah 4:3, which states that God will beat swords into ploughshares, and spears into pruning hooks, so that no country could lift up weapons against another".[26] Proposed uses included widening the Panama Canal, constructing a new sea-level waterway through Nicaragua nicknamed the Pan-Atomic Canal, cutting paths through mountainous areas for highways, and connecting inland river systems. Other proposals involved blasting caverns for water, natural gas, and petroleum storage. It was proposed to plant underground atomic bombs to extract shale oil in eastern Utah and western Colorado. Serious consideration was also given to using these explosives for various mining operations. One proposal suggested using nuclear blasts to connect underground aquifers in Arizona. Another plan involved surface blasting on the western slope of California's Sacramento Valley for a water transport project.[26] However, there were many negative impacts from Project Plowshare's 27 nuclear explosions.[26] Consequences included blighted land, relocated communities, tritium-contaminated water, radioactivity, and fallout from debris being hurled high into the atmosphere. These were ignored and downplayed until the program was terminated in 1977, due in large part to public opposition, after $770 million had been spent on the project.[26]
In the Thunderbirds TV series, a set of vehicles was presented that were imagined to be completely nuclear, as shown in cutaways presented in their comic-books.
The term "atomic age" was initially used in a positive, futuristic sense, but by the 1960s the threats posed by nuclear weapons had begun to edge out nuclear power as the dominant motif of the atom.
1970s to 1990s
French advocates of nuclear power developed an aesthetic vision of nuclear technology as art to bolster support for the technology. Leclerq compares the nuclear cooling tower to some of the grandest architectural monuments of Western culture:[27]
The age in which we live has, for the public, been marked by the nuclear engineer and the gigantic edifices he has created. For builders and visitors alike, nuclear power plants will be considered the cathedrals of the 20th century. Their syncretism mingles the conscious and the unconscious, religious fulfilment and industrial achievement, the limitations of uses of materials and boundless artistic inspiration, utopia come true and the continued search for harmony.[27]
In 1973, the United States Atomic Energy Commission predicted that, by the turn of the 21st century, one thousand reactors would be producing electricity for homes and businesses across the USA. But after 1973, reactor orders declined sharply as electricity demand fell and construction costs rose. Many orders and partially completed plants were cancelled.[4]
Nuclear power has proved controversial since the 1970s.
By the late 1970s, nuclear power suffered a remarkable international destabilization, as it was faced with economic difficulties and widespread public opposition, coming to a head with the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, and the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, both of which adversely affected the nuclear power industry for decades thereafter. A cover story in the 11 February 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented on the overall management of the nuclear power program in the United States:
The failure of the U.S. nuclear power program ranks as the largest managerial disaster in business history, a disaster on a monumental scale ... only the blind, or the biased, can now think that the money has been well spent. It is a defeat for the U.S. consumer and for the competitiveness of U.S. industry, for the utilities that undertook the program and for the private enterprise system that made it possible.[29]
So, in a period just over 30 years, the early dramatic rise of nuclear power went into equally meteoric reverse. With no other energy technology has there been a conjunction of such rapid and revolutionary international emergence, followed so quickly by equally transformative demise.[30]
21st century
In the 21st century, the label of the "Atomic Age" connotes either a sense of
The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly.
In September 2012, in reaction to the Fukushima disaster, Japan announced that it would completely phase out nuclear power by 2030, although the likelihood of this goal became unlikely during the subsequent Abe administration.[38] Germany planned to completely phase out nuclear energy by 2022[39] but was still using 11.9% in 2021.[needs update] In 2022, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United Kingdom pledged to build up to 8 new reactors to reduce their reliance on gas and oil and hopes that 25% of all energy produced will be by nuclear means.[40]
Chronology
A large
On 12 June 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's
On May 1st 2005, forty thousand anti-nuclear/anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[52][53] This was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. for several decades.[54]
Discovery and development
- 1896 – Henri Becquerel notices that uranium gives off an unknown radiation which fogs photographic film.[55]
- 1898 – radioactivity.[55]
- 1903 – Ernest Rutherford begins to speak of the possibility of atomic energy.[56]
- 1905 – special theory of relativity which explains the phenomenon of radioactivity as mass–energy equivalence.[56]
- 1911 – Ernest Rutherford formulates a theory about the structure of the atomic nucleus based on his experiments with alpha particles.[57]
- 1930 – Otto Hahn writes an article with his prophecy "The Atom – the source of power of the future?" in the newspaper Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.[58]
- 1932 – James Chadwick discovers the neutron.[59]
- 1934 – Enrico Fermi begins bombarding uranium with slow neutrons; Ida Noddack predicts that uranium nuclei will break up under bombardment by fast neutrons. (Fermi does not pursue this because his theoretical mathematical predictions do not predict this result.)
- 17 December 1938 – Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann, by bombarding uranium with fast neutrons, discover experimentally and prove nuclear fission with radiochemical methods.[60]
- 6 January 1939 – Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann publish the first paper about their discovery in the German review Die Naturwissenschaften.[61]
- 10 February 1939 – Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann publish the second paper about their discovery in Die Naturwissenschaften, using for the first time the term uranium fission, and predict the liberation of additional neutrons in the fission process.[62]
- 11 February 1939 – Otto Frisch publish the first theoretical interpretation of nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch, in the British review Nature.[63]
- 11 October 1939 – The Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt signs the order to build a nuclear weapon on 6 December 1941.[64]
- 26 February 1941 – Discovery of Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl.
- September 1942 – General Leslie Groves takes charge of the Manhattan Project.
- 2 December 1942 – Under the leadership of Fermi, the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction takes place in Chicago, United States, at the Chicago Pile-1.
Nuclear arms deployment
- 16 July 1945 – The first nuclear weapon is detonated in a plutonium form near Socorro, New Mexico, United States in the successful Trinity test.
- 6 August 1945 – The second nuclear weapon, and the first to be deployed in combat, is detonated when the Little Boy uranium bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
- 9 August 1945 – The third nuclear weapon, and the second (and last so far) to be deployed in combat, is detonated when the Fat Man plutonium bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki.
- 5 September 1951 – The U.S. Air Force announces the awarding of a contract for the development of an "atomic-powered airplane".
- 1 November 1952 – The first Eniwetok Atoll.
"Atoms for Peace"
- 8 December 1953 – U.S. President UN General Assembly, announces the Atoms for Peace program to provide nuclear power to developing countries.
- 21 January 1954 – The first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus (SSN-571), is launched into the Thames River near New London, Connecticut, United States.
- 27 June 1954 – The first USSR.
- 17 September 1954 – U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, states that nuclear energy will be "too cheap to meter".[65]
- 17 October 1956 – The world's first nuclear power station to deliver electricity in commercial quantities opens at Calder Hall in the UK.[66]
- 29 September 1957 – 200+ people die as a result of the Mayak nuclear waste storage tank explosion in Chelyabinsk, Soviet Union. 270,000 people were exposed to dangerous radiation levels.[67]
- 1957 to 1959 – The ICBMs.
- 1958 – The neutron bomb, a special type of tactical nuclear weapon developed specifically to release a relatively large portion of its energy as energetic neutron radiation, is invented by Samuel Cohen of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
- 1960 – Herman Kahn publishes the book On Thermonuclear War.
- November 1961 – In nuclear war.[68]
- 12 October 1962 to 28 October 1962 – The brink of nuclear war.
- 10 October 1963 – The Partial Test Ban Treatygoes into effect, banning above ground nuclear testing.
- 26 August 1966 – The first atomic powered vehicles).
- 27 January 1967 – The Outer Space Treaty bans the deployment of nuclear weapons in space.
- 1968 – Physicist hydrogen bombs. The rocket would have a payload of 50,000 tonnes, a crew of 240, and be able to travel at 3.3% of the speed of light and would reach Alpha Centauri in 133 years. It would cost $367 billion in 1968 dollars, which is the equivalent of about $2.2 trillion in 2012 dollars.[69][70]
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
- 28 March 1979 – The Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, dampening enthusiasm in the United States for nuclear power, and causing a dramatic shift in the growth of nuclear power in the United States.
- 6 May 1979 – A large anti-nuclear demonstration was held in Washington, D.C., when 125,000 people[41] including the Governor of California, attended a march and rally against nuclear power.[42]
- 23 September 1979 – In New York City, almost 200,000 people attended a protest against nuclear power.[43]
- 26 April 1986 – The USSR, reducing enthusiasm for nuclear power among many people in the world, and causing a dramatic shift in the growth of nuclear power.
Nuclear arms reduction
- 8 December 1987 – The SRBMswere eliminated.
- 1993–2007 – Nuclear power is the primary source of electricity in France. Throughout these two decades, France produced over three quarters of its power from nuclear sources (78.8%), the highest percentage in the world at the time.[71][72]
- 31 July 1991 – As the Start Itreaty is signed by the United States and the Soviet Union, reducing the deployed nuclear warheads of each side to no more than 6,000 each.
- 1993 – The Megatons to Megawatts Program is agreed upon by Russia and the United States and begins to be implemented in 1995. When it is completed in 2013, five hundred tonnes of uranium derived from 20,000 nuclear warheads from Russia will have been converted from weapons-grade to reactor-grade uranium and used in United States nuclear plants to generate electricity. This has provided 10% of the electrical power of the U.S. (50% of its nuclear power) during the 1995–2013 period.[73]
- 2006 – global warming.
- 21 November 2006 – Implementation of the ITER fusion power reactor project near Cadarache, France is begun. Construction is to be completed in 2016 with the hope that the research conducted there will allow the introduction of practical commercial fusion power plants by 2050.
- 2006–2009 – A number of
- 8 April 2010 – The New START treaty is signed by the United States and Russia in Prague. It mandates the eventual reduction by both sides to no more than 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear weapons each.
Fukushima
- 11 March 2011 – A tsunami resulting from the , it is the only nuclear accident to be rated at level 7, the highest level on the scale, and caused the most dramatic shift in nuclear policy to date.
Influence on popular culture
- 1945 – The Atomaton chapter of Sweet Adelines was formed by Edna Mae Anderson after she and her sister singers decided, "We have an atom of an idea and a ton of energy." The name also recognized the Atomic Age—just three days after Sweet Adelines was founded (13 July 1945), the first nuclear bomb, Trinity, was detonated.
- 5 July 1946 – The bikini swimsuit, named after Bikini Atoll, where an atomic bomb test called Operation Crossroads had taken place a few days earlier on 1 July 1946, was introduced at a fashion show in Paris.[79]
- 1954 – Them!, a science fiction film about humanity's battle with a nest of giant mutant ants, was one of the first of the "nuclear monster" movies.
- 1954 – The science fiction film Godzilla was released, about an iconic fictional monster that is a gigantic irradiated dinosaur, transformed from the fallout of an H-Bomb test.
- 23 January 1957 – Disneyland, this film was also shown to almost all baby boomers in their public school auditoriums or their science classes and was instrumental in creating within that generation a mostly favorable attitude toward nuclear power.[80]
- 1957 – The current leader of the Shia Islam, Shah Karim al-Husayni, the Aga Khan IV, acceded to the Imamship at age 20. One of the titles bestowed on him by his followers was his designation as The Imam of the Atomic Age.[81]
- 1958 – The Brussels World's Fair.
- 1958 –The peace symbol was designed for the British nuclear disarmament movement by Gerald Holtom.[82]
- 1959 – The popular film human raceafter a nuclear war.
- 1964 – The film Dr. Strangelove, or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (aka Dr. Strangelove), a black comedy directed by Stanley Kubrick about an accidentally triggered nuclear war, was released.
- 1970 – The underground comic book Hydrogen Bomb Funnies is published.[83]
- 1982 – The documentary film The Atomic Cafe, detailing society's attitudes toward the atomic bomb in the early Atomic Age, debuted to widespread acclaim.
- 1982 – humanity and possibly most life on Earth". The best-selling book instigated the Nuclear Freeze campaign.
- 1983 – The nuclear apocalypse, is published.[84]
- 20 November 1983 – television movie was aired on the ABC Television Network, and also in the Soviet Union. The film portrays a fictional nuclear war between the United States/NATO and the Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact. After the film, a panel discussion is presented in which Carl Sagan suggested that we need to reduce the number of nuclear weapons as a matter of "planetary hygiene". This film was seen by over 100,000,000 people and was instrumental in greatly increasing public support for the Nuclear Freeze campaign.
- Beginning in the 1990s, nostalgia stores that specialize in selling modern furniture or artifacts from the 1950s often have included the words Atomic Age as part of the name of, or advertising for the store.
- 1997 - The Fallout game series' first game comes out, where nuclear destruction in the distant future leads to a global wasteland, and the player must navigate this whilst following a story.
- 1999 – Blast from the Past was released. It is a romantic comedy film about a nuclear physicist, his wife, and son that enter a well-equipped spacious fallout shelter during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. They do not emerge until 35 years later, in 1997. The film shows their reaction to contemporary society.
- 1999 – Larry Niven published the science fiction novel Rainbow Mars. In this novel, in the 31st century, Earth uses a dating system based on what is called the Atomic Era, in which the year one is 1945. Thus, what we call the year 3053 A.D. (the year the novel begins) is in the novel the year 1108 A.E.
- Autumn 2007 – Bachelor Pad Magazine, "The New Digest of Atomic Age Culture" began publication.[85]
- 23 November 2010 – Civilization V, the fifth game in a long-running popular turn-based strategy game series, was released. One of the many eras in the game is the Atomic era where players can make ICBMs, nuclear reactors and submarines and even sci-fi style giant nuclear-powered robots.
- 25 May 2018 – Parmanu, an Indian movie regarding the Second Pokhran Project was released.
See also
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-252-02341-5.
- ^ a b c Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, p. 259.
- ^ John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, p. 99.
- ^ In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc., p. 283.
- Forbes magazine.
- ^ Zia Mian & Alexander Glaser (June 2006). "Life in a Nuclear Powered Crowd" (PDF). INESAP Information Bulletin No.26.
- ^ The two words atomic and nuclear are synonymous in the context of atomic power and weapons. The atom consists of a nucleus and one or more electrons. All atomic reactions involve changing one atom into another by changing the nucleus. Historically atomic power is an older term, and nuclear power is newer.President Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" Speech
- ^ "The Discovery of Nuclear Fission". www.mpic.de.
- doi:10.1038/383294b0.
- ^ Benjamin K. Sovacool, The National Politics of Nuclear Power, Routledge, p. 68.
- ISBN 9781434405302.
- ^ Gonzalez, Juan (9 August 2005). "ATOMIC TRUTHS PLAGUE PRIZE COVERUP". New York Daily News.
Laurence, the only journalist the U.S. government permitted to witness the bombing of Nagasaki, is also the reporter who first coined the term "Atomic Age." ... Nagasaki, Laurence launched his Times series, where he extolled the bomb and sought to discredit other accounts about effects of the bomb.
[permanent dead link] - ^ On this incident, see David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994): 59–60.
- ^ John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, p. 85.
- ^ Simon, Steven; Bouville, Andre (2006). "Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks". American Scientist. AmericanScientist.org. Retrieved 12 September 2020.
Exposures 50 years ago still have health implications today that will continue into the future.
- ^ a b John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, p. 266.
- ^ "Too Cheap to Meter?". Canadian Nuclear Society. 30 March 2007. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2007.
- ^ John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, p. 55.
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- ^ Kelly, Kate (26 October 2010). "Remember Duck and Cover? What Safety Experts May Have Been Thinking". HuffPost.
- ^ "Atomic Tourism in Nevada". pbs.org. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
- ^ Bosker, Gideon (1998). Atomic Cocktails. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 8.
- ^ Loria, Kevin (17 August 2017). "Nuclear explosions from the past are still causing cancer and health problems today". Business Insider. Retrieved 24 October 2018.
- ^ Charles Perrow (September–October 2013). "Nuclear denial: From Hiroshima to Fukushima". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
- ^ a b c d Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, pp. 171–172.
- ^ a b John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Congressional Research report, Nuclear Energy: Overview of Congressional Issues, CRS Report, 2015.
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- ^ Tomoko Yamazaki & Shunichi Ozasa (27 June 2011). "Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting". Bloomberg.
- ^ a b Jacobson, Mark Z. & Delucchi, Mark A. (2010). "Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials" (PDF). Energy Policy. p. 6.
- ^ Hugh Gusterson (16 March 2011). "The lessons of Fukushima". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013.
- ^ James Paton (4 April 2011). "Fukushima Crisis Worse for Atomic Power Than Chernobyl, UBS Says". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011.
- ^ World Energy Outlook 2007 pp 74,360
- ^ Benjamin K. Sovacool (January 2011). "Second Thoughts About Nuclear Power" (PDF). National University of Singapore. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003). "The Future of Nuclear Power" (PDF). p. 48.
- ^ "Japan Plans To Abandon Nuclear Power". www.countercurrents.org.
- ^ "The history behind Germany's nuclear phase-out". Clean Energy Wire. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
- ^ "How much nuclear power does the UK use and is it safe?". BBC News. 9 November 2021.
- ^ a b "D.C. Anti-Nuke Rally Draws 125,000", WRL News, July–August 1979, War Resisters League, New York, NY
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7425-1827-8.
- ^ a b Herman, Robin (24 September 1979). "Nearly 200,000 Rally to Protest Nuclear Energy". The New York Times. p. B1.
- ^ Williams, Estha. Nuke Fight Nears Decisive Moment Archived 29 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine Valley Advocate, 28 August 2008.
- ^ Jonathan Schell. The Spirit of June 12 Archived 12 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine The Nation, 2 July 2007.
- ^ 1982 – a million people march in New York City Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-1-4128-2343-2.
- ^ 1,400 Anti-nuclear protesters arrested Miami Herald, 21 June 1983.
- ^ Hundreds of Marchers Hit Washington in Finale of Nationwaide Peace March Gainesville Sun, 16 November 1986.
- ^ Robert Lindsey. 438 Protesters are Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site The New York Times, 6 February 1987.
- ^ 493 Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site The New York Times, 20 April 1992.
- ^ Lance Murdoch. Pictures: New York MayDay anti-nuke/war march Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine IndyMedia, 2 May 2005.
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- ^ a b Asimov, Isaac Atom: Journey Across the Sub-Atomic Cosmos New York:1992 Plume Page 92
- ^ a b Asimov, Isaac Atom: Journey Across the Sub-Atomic Cosmos New York:1992 Plume Page 125
- ^ Asimov, Isaac Atom: Journey Across the Sub-Atomic Cosmos New York:1992 Plume Page 95
- ISBN 0-387-95057-5.
- ^ Asimov, Isaac Atom: Journey Across the Sub-Atomic Cosmos New York:1992 Plume Page 154
- ^ Otto Hahn: A Scientific Autobiography. Charles Scribner's, New York 1966.
- ISBN 0-387-95057-5.
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- ^ Lise Meitner: Otto Hahn – the discoverer of nuclear fission. In: Forscher und Wissenschaftler im heutigen Europa. Stalling, Oldenburg-Hamburg 1955.
- ^ Asimov, Isaac Atom: Journey Across the Sub-Atomic Cosmos New York:1992 Plume Page 182
- ^ Too Cheap to Meter?: Archived 4 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "First commercial nuclear power station". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-4259-8512-7.
- ^ Fortune magazine November 1961 Pages 112–115 et al
- ^ "Nuclear Pulse Propulsion: A Historical Review" by Martin and Bond, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1979 (p.301)
- ^ Interstellar Transport Physics Today October 1968
- ^ EnerPub (8 June 2007). "France: Energy profile". Spero News. Archived from the original on 4 October 2007. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
- ^ World Nuclear Association (August 2007). "Nuclear Power in France". Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 25 August 2007. (alternate copy Archived 3 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ USEC Progress Report on Megatons to Megawatts Program: Archived 8 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Tierney, John (27 February 2007). "Findings; An Early Environmentalist, Embracing New 'Heresies'". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 March 2008.
- ^ "Scientist Urges Switch to Thorium". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
- ^ Martin, Richard (21 December 2009). "Uranium Is So Last Century — Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke". Wired. Vol. 18, no. 1 – via www.wired.com.
- ^ "Japan to raise Fukushima crisis level to worst". Archived from the original on 12 April 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ^ "Japan raises nuclear crisis to same level as Chernobyl". Reuters. 12 April 2011.
- ^ "The Bikini Turns 60". Archived from the original on 9 September 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
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- ^ Breyer, Melissa (21 September 2010). "Where did the peace sign come from?". Shine. Yahoo!. Archived from the original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
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- ^ "The End". Archived from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2009.
- ^ "The Digest of Atomic Age Culture". Bachelor Pad Magazine.
Further reading
- "Presidency in the Nuclear Age", conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, 12 October 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency".
External links
- Annotated bibliography on the Nuclear Age at the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues.
- Atomic Age Alliance, a volunteer group dedicated to preserving Atomic Age culture and architecture.
- The Nation in the Nuclear Age, a slideshow by The Nation.