Atomoxetine
Clinical data | |
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Trade names | Strattera, others |
Other names | (R)-N-Methyl-3-phenyl-3-(o-tolyloxy)propan-1-amine |
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
MedlinePlus | a603013 |
License data |
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Pregnancy category |
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Routes of administration | By mouth |
Drug class | Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor |
ATC code | |
Legal status | |
Legal status | |
Pharmacokinetic data | |
Bioavailability | 63 to 94%[7][8][9] |
Protein binding | 98%[7][8][9] |
Metabolism | Liver, via CYP2D6[7][8][9] |
Elimination half-life | 4.5–25 hours[7][8][9][10][11] |
Excretion | Kidney (80%) and faecal (17%)[7][8][9] |
Identifiers | |
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JSmol) | |
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Atomoxetine, sold under the brand name Strattera, is a
Common side effects of atomoxetine include abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, feeling tired, and dizziness.[12] Serious side effects may include angioedema, liver problems, stroke, psychosis, heart problems, suicide, and aggression.[12][25] There is a lack of data regarding its safety during pregnancy; as of 2019, its safety during pregnancy and for use during breastfeeding is not certain.[26][27]
It was approved for medical use in the United States in 2002.[12] In 2021, it was the 219th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1.9 million prescriptions.[28][29]
Medical uses
Atomoxetine is
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Atomoxetine is approved for use in children, adolescents, and adults.
While its efficacy may be less than that of amphetamine,
Unlike α2 adrenoceptor agonists such as guanfacine and clonidine, atomoxetine's use can be abruptly stopped without significant discontinuation effects being seen.[8]
The initial therapeutic effects of atomoxetine usually take 1 to 4 weeks to become apparent.[7][33][34] A further 2 to 4 weeks may be required for the full therapeutic effects to be seen.[35][33] Incrementally increasing response may occur up to 1 year or longer.[34][36] The maximum recommended total daily dose in children and adolescents over 70 kg and adults is 100 mg.[5]
Other uses
Cognitive disengagement syndrome
Atomoxetine may be used to treat cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS),[37] as multiple randomised controlled clinical trials (RCTs) have found that it is an effective treatment.[38][39][40] In contrast, multiple other RCTs have shown that it responds poorly to the stimulant medication methylphenidate.[41][42][43][44]
Traumatic brain injury
Atomoxetine is sometimes used in the treatment of
Contraindications
Contraindications include:[8]
- Any cardiovascular disease including:
- Moderate to severe hypertension
- Atrial fibrillation
- Atrial flutter
- Ventricular tachycardia
- Ventricular fibrillation
- Ventricular flutter
- Advanced arteriosclerosis
- Severe cardiovascular disorders
- Uncontrolled hyperthyroidism
- Pheochromocytoma
- Concomitant treatment with monoamine oxidase inhibitors
- Narrow angle glaucoma
Adverse effects
Common side effects include abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, feeling tired, and dizziness.
The U.S.
Overdose
Atomoxetine is relatively non-toxic in overdose. Single-drug overdoses involving over 1500 mg of atomoxetine have not resulted in death.[8]
Interactions
Atomoxetine is a
Atomoxetine has been found to directly inhibit
Other notable drug interactions include:[8]
- Antihypertensiveagents, due to atomoxetine acting as an indirect sympathomimetic
- Indirect-acting norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, or MAOIs
- Direct-acting sympathomimetics, such as
- Highly plasma protein-bound drugs: atomoxetine has the potential to displace these drugs from plasma proteins which may potentiate their adverse or toxic effects. In vitro, atomoxetine does not affect the plasma protein binding of aspirin, desipramine, diazepam, paroxetine, phenytoin, or warfarin[10][58]
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Site | ATX | 4-OH-ATX | N-DM-ATX | |
---|---|---|---|---|
SERT | 77 | 43 | ND | |
NET | 5 | 3 | 92 | |
DAT | 1,451 | ND | ND | |
5-HT1A | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
5-HT1B | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
5-HT1D | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
5-HT2 | 2,000 | 1,000 | 1,700 | |
5-HT6 | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
5-HT7 | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
α1 | 11,400 | 20,000 | 19,600 | |
α2A | 29,800 | >30,000 | >10,000 | |
β1 | 18,000 | 56,100 | 32,100 | |
M1 | >100,000 | >100,000 | >100,000 | |
M2 | >100,000 | >100,000 | >100,000 | |
D1 | >10,000 | >10,000 | >10,000 | |
D2 | >10,000 | >10,000 | >10,000 | |
H1 | 12,100 | >100,000 | >100,000 | |
MOR |
Antagonist | 422 | ND | |
DOR |
ND | 300 | ND | |
KOR |
Partial Agonist | 95 | ND | |
σ1 | >1,000 | ND | ND | |
GABAA | 200 | >30,000 | >10,000 | |
NMDA | 0.66 - 3,470a | ND | ND | |
Kir3.1/3.2 |
10,900b | ND | ND | |
Kir3.2 |
12,400b | ND | ND | |
Kir3.1/3.4 |
6,500b | ND | ND | |
hERG | 6,300 | 20,000 | 5,710 | |
Values are Ki (nM). The smaller the value, the more strongly the drug binds to the site. All values are for human receptors unless otherwise specified. arat cortex. bXenopus oocytes. Additional sources:[61][62][10][58] |
Atomoxetine inhibits the presynaptic norepinephrine transporter (NET), preventing the reuptake of norepinephrine throughout the brain along with inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine in specific brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, where dopamine transporter (DAT) expression is minimal.[10] In rats, atomoxetine increased prefrontal cortex catecholamine concentrations without altering dopamine levels in the striatum or nucleus accumbens; in contrast, methylphenidate, a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, was found to increase prefrontal, striatal, and accumbal dopamine levels to the same degree.[61] In addition to rats, atomoxetine has also been found to induce similar region-specific catecholamine level alteration in mice.[63]
Atomoxetine's status as a
Atomoxetine has been found to act as an
Atomoxetine also reversibly inhibits
4-Hydroxyatomoxetine, the major active metabolite of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers, has been found to have sub-micromolar affinity for
Pharmacokinetics
Orally administered atomoxetine is rapidly and completely absorbed.[10] First-pass metabolism by the liver is dependent on CYP2D6 activity, resulting in an absolute bioavailability of 63% for extensive metabolizers and 94% for poor metabolizers.[10] Maximum plasma concentration is reached in 1–2 hours.[10] If taken with food, the maximum plasma concentration decreases by 10-40% and delays the tmax by 3 hours.[10] Drugs affecting gastric pH have no effect on oral bioavailability.[5]
Following intravenous delivery, atomoxetine has a volume of distribution of 0.85 L/kg (indicating distribution primarily in total body water), with limited partitioning into red blood cells.[10][73] It is highly bound to plasma proteins (98.7%), mainly albumin, along with α1-acid glycoprotein (77%) and IgG (15%).[10][58] Its metabolite N-desmethylatomoxetine is 99.1% bound to plasma proteins, while 4-hydroxyatomoxetine is only 66.6% bound.[10]
The half-life of atomoxetine varies widely between individuals, with an average range of 4.5 to 19 hours.
Atomoxetine, N-desmethylatomoxetine, and 4-hydroxyatomoxetine produce minimal to no inhibition of CYP1A2 and CYP2C9, but inhibit CYP2D6 in human liver microsomes at concentrations between 3.6 and 17 μmol/L.[citation needed] Plasma concentrations of 4-hydroxyatomoxetine and N-desmethylatomoxetine at steady state are 1.0% and 5% that of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers, and are 5% and 45% that of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.[5]
Atomoxetine is excreted unchanged in urine at <3% in both extensive and poor CYP2D6 metabolizers, with >96% and 80% of a total dose being excreted in urine, respectively.[10] The fractions excreted in urine as 4-hydroxyatomoxetine and its glucuronide account for 86% of a given dose in extensive metabolizers, but only 40% in poor metabolizers.[10] CYP2D6 poor metabolizers excrete greater amounts of minor metabolites, namely N-desmethylatomoxetine and 2-hydroxymethylatomoxetine and their conjugates.[10]
Pharmacogenomics
Chinese adults homozygous for the hypoactive CYP2D6*10 allele have been found to exhibit two-fold higher area-under-the-curve (AUCs) and 1.5-fold higher maximum plasma concentrations compared to extensive metabolizers.[10]
Japanese men homozygous for CYP2D6*10 have similarly been found to experience two-fold higher AUCs compared to extensive metabolizers.[10]
Chemistry
Atomoxetine, or (−)-methyl[(3R)-3-(2-methylphenoxy)-3-phenylpropylamine, is a white, granular powder that is highly soluble in water.
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Strattera 60-mg capsule back
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Strattera 60-mg capsule front with Lilly logo
Synthesis
Detection in biological fluids
Atomoxetine may be quantitated in plasma, serum or whole blood in order to distinguish extensive versus poor metabolizers in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.[79]
History
Atomoxetine is manufactured, marketed, and sold in the United States as the hydrochloride salt (atomoxetine HCl) under the brand name Strattera by Eli Lilly and Company, the original patent-filing company and current U.S. patent owner. Atomoxetine was initially intended to be developed as an antidepressant, but it was found to be insufficiently efficacious for treating depression. It was, however, found to be effective for ADHD and was approved by the FDA in 2002, for the treatment of ADHD. Its patent expired in May 2017.[80] On 12 August 2010, Lilly lost a lawsuit that challenged its patent on Strattera, increasing the likelihood of an earlier entry of a generic into the US market.[81] On 1 September 2010, Sun Pharmaceuticals announced it would begin manufacturing a generic in the United States.[82] In a 29 July 2011 conference call, however, Sun Pharmaceutical's Chairman stated "Lilly won that litigation on appeal so I think [generic Strattera]'s deferred."[83]
In 2017 the FDA approved the generic production of atomoxetine by four pharmaceutical companies.[84]
Society and culture
The drug was originally known as tomoxetine. It was renamed to avoid
Brand names
In India, atomoxetine is sold under brand names including Axetra, Axepta, Attera, Tomoxetin, and Attentin. In Australia, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland and the US, atomoxetine is sold under the brand name Strattera. In the Czech Republic it is sold under brand names including Mylan. In Poland, it is sold under the brand name Auroxetyn. In Iran, atomoxetine is sold under brand names including Stramox. In Brazil, it is sold under the brand name Atentah. In 2017, a
Research
There has been some suggestion that atomoxetine might be a helpful adjunct in people with
Atomoxetine may be used in those with ADHD and
References
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Further reading
- Dean L (2015). "Atomoxetine Therapy and CYP2D6 Genotype". In Pratt VM, McLeod HL, Rubinstein WS, et al. (eds.). Medical Genetics Summaries. from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2020.