African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) live and hunt in packs. Males assist in raising the pups, and stay with their pack for life. The females leave their birth pack at approximately 2.5 years old to join another pack without females. Males outnumber the females in a pack. Typically, only one female is present to breed with all males. African wild dogs are not territorial, and hunt cooperatively in their packs. For example, they will run down large game and tear it apart with their pack. They also cooperate in caring for wounded, sick, and young pack members.[1]
Gray wolves (Canis lupus) tend to live in packs that consist of adult parents and their offspring of the last two or three years. The adult parents are usually unrelated, and other unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack.[2] Wolves usually hunt in packs, but they hunt alone in the spring and summer months when plenty of prey is available.[citation needed] They are found in both Eurasia and North America.
Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) in Southern and Eastern Africa and coyotes (Canis latrans) in North America have a single long-term mate. As such, they usually hunt alone or in pairs.[3][4] A pack consists of the breeding pair and their current young. They occasionally cooperate in larger packs to hunt big game, but rarely hunt animals larger than a small, young antelope. Black-backed jackals are not typically considered 'aggressive' towards larger animals but tend to be wary of humans. However, they will become aggressive if they feel threatened, in order to defend the boundaries of their territories.
The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) pack members hunt for rodents alone, and come together mainly to defend their territory from rival packs.[5]
Corsac foxes sometimes form packs, unlike some other fox species.[6]
Wolves are recognized for creating cooperative relationships within their pack structure, which significantly influence their interactions. with one another,[7] perhaps as a reflection of the relationships they present in the pack, reflecting any tension, cooperation, and competition present.[7] Tensions are noted to become higher around breeding season. This is due to increased opportunities for reproduction. Individuals challenge the group hierarchy to gain better-quality mates. This leads to greater intraspecific competition and rising tensions.[7] Female wolves are known for being the main initiators of affiliative interactions, though a small percentage of males will initiate affiliative interactions.[7] The omega male is not a target of any affiliative interaction.[7] In other studies, researchers have separated the most dominant wolf from the most subordinate wolves.[8] It was recorded that the dominant wolf spent less time sleeping and showed more behavioural stress compared to the omega wolf.[8] The dominant wolf was reported to rest in the section of his enclosure closest to his pack.[8] Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher-ranking compatriots.[8]
Cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting the young, though the level of attachment present in the pack is not necessarily equal.[8] The majority of wolves are known for dispersing from their birth pack; this makes measuring attachment behavior within the packs difficult.[9] There are cases in which wolves leave their pack, typically when accompanying siblings of the same sex.[9] This behaviour is suggested to be adaptive, which will benefit pack mates in future conflicts.[9]
All individuals benefit from being a member of the wolf pack; the weak are supported by the efforts of stronger wolves,[10][11] and higher-ranking individuals enjoy better and larger kills than could be taken on their own.[12] Protection is granted by sheer number, and larger, more plentiful territory can be won and sustained.[13] Care and protection of the young are shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group[10]
The pack is typically a nuclear family unit.[14] It often consists of 5–10 (though in areas of high prey abundance can be up to 30)[15] mostly related individuals, specifically consisting of a typically unrelated breeding pair also known as the alphas,[16] their offspring, and occasionally a handful of other wolves which can be related or not.[14] Membership may be fluid and is subject to change.[17] Outside wolves may be shunned or, more rarely, accepted, depending on the specific circumstances. Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist.[16] Outside wolves can provide these opportunities.[10] A pack may accept another wolf into their group if it is a distant relative,[14] if reproduction rates are low due to the loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced.[16][failed verification]
Characterisation of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega was based on behavioural studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units.[14]