Kingdom of Pergamon
Kingdom of Pergamon | |||||||||||
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approx. 282 BC–129 BC | |||||||||||
Attalus II | |||||||||||
• 138–133 BC | Attalus III | ||||||||||
• 133–129 BC | Eumenes III | ||||||||||
Historical era | Hellenistic period | ||||||||||
• Philetaerus takes control of the city of Pergamon | approx. 282 BC | ||||||||||
• Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic | 133 BC | ||||||||||
• Incorporated into Roman province of Asia after the defeat of Eumenes III Aristonicus | 129 BC | ||||||||||
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The Kingdom of Pergamon, Pergamene Kingdom, or Attalid kingdom was a Greek state during the Hellenistic period that ruled much of the Western part of Asia Minor from its capital city of Pergamon. It was ruled by the Attalid dynasty (/ˈætəlɪd/; Greek: Δυναστεία των Ατταλιδών, romanized: Dynasteía ton Attalidón).
The kingdom was a rump state that was created from the territory ruled by Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. Philetaerus, one of Lysimachus' lieutenants, rebelled and took the city of Pergamon and its environs with him; Lysimachus died soon after in 281 BC. The new kingdom was initially in a vassal-like relationship of nominal fealty to the Seleucid Empire, but exercised considerable autonomy and soon became entirely independent. It was a monarchy ruled by Philetaerus's extended family and their descendants. It lasted around 150 years before being eventually absorbed by the Roman Republic during the period from 133–129 BC.
History
From autonomy to independence (282–241 BC)
Philetaerus' nephew and adopted son, Eumenes I, succeeded him upon his death in 263 BC. He rebelled and defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter near the Lydian capital of Sardis in 261 BC. He created an outright independent Pergamese state, and greatly increased its territories. He established garrisons, such as Philetaireia, in the north at the foot of Mount Ida, which was named after his adoptive father, and Attaleia, in the east, to the northeast of Thyatira near the sources of the river Lycus, which was named after his grandfather. He also extended his control to the south of the river Caïcus, reaching the Gulf of Cyme. Eumenes I minted coins with the portrait of Philetaerus, who during his reign had still been depicting the Seleucid king Seleucus I Nicator on his coins.[4]
Reign of Attalus I Soter (241–197 BC)
Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC) succeeded Eumenes I after being adopted as his son.[5] Early in his reign, he won a battlefield victory against the Galatians of Asia Minor (called Gauls by Pausanias) at the Battle of the Caecus River.[6] This victory was a key to the legitimacy of Hellenistic kings, who styled themselves after Alexander the Great's legacy of military glories, and improved the standing and prestige of the kingdom.[4] Attalus took the name Soter, "Savior", afterward, and explicitly took the title of basileus, king.[7] Several years later, the "War of the Brothers" broke out in the Seleucid Empire between Seleucus II Callinicus and Antiochus Hierax. Antiochus Hierax made alliances with other kings in Asia Minor, his base of power, including both the Galatians and the Cappadocians. Around 230 BC, Hireax attacked Pergamon with the help of the Galatians. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Antiochus in the Battle of Aphrodisium and in a second battle in the east. He then fought Antiochus alone in a battle near Sardis and in the Battle of the Harpasus in Caria in 229 BC. After this Antiochus left to start a campaign in Mesopotamia, and then pivoted toward Thrace in 227 BC. He was killed in battle against the Gauls and the Kingdom of Tylis.[8] With Antiochus Hierax's death, Attalus gained control over all Seleucid territories in Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains. He repulsed several attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus, who had succeeded Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory. The newly expanded kingdom stretched over 143,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi).[8]
The expansion was not to last long. In 223 BC, Seleucus III crossed the Taurus, but was assassinated, and the general Achaeus assumed control of the Seleucid army. Antiochus III the Great made Achaeus governor of the Seleucid territories north of the Taurus. Achaeus embarked upon a remarkably successful military campaign. Within two years, he had recovered the lost territories, taken parts of the traditional Pergamese heartland, and forced Attalus to retreat within the walls of Pergamon. However, Achaeus himself turned on Antiochus III and proclaimed himself a king, perhaps because he was accused of intending to revolt anyway, or perhaps simply drunk with success. By 220/219 BC, Achaeus and Attalus seem to have made peace.[9][10]
In 218 BC, Achaeus undertook an expedition to Selge, south of the Taurus. Attalus recaptured his former territories with the help of some Thracian Gauls. Achaeus returned from his victorious campaign in 217 BC and hostilities between the two resumed. Attalus made an alliance with Antiochus III, who besieged Achaeus in Sardis in 214 BC. Antiochus captured the city and put Achaeus to death in the next year. Attalus regained control over his territories.[9]
The Attalids became allies of the Roman Republic during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC), although their participation was rather ineffective and insignificant.[11][12] They would go on to support Rome in many subsequent wars. Attalus I, who had helped the Romans in the first war, also provided them with assistance in the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC).[13]
Expansion after the Treaty of Apamea (197–138 BC)
King
Eumenes II was ill for the last decade of his life, and was succeeded by his brother
Final years (138–129 BC)
Not that much has survived in ancient sources of the reign of the last Attalid king,
Art, religion, and culture
Two notable cults in early Pergamon were the cult of the Cabiri, a pantheon likely of original Phrygian or Thracian origin that became syncretized with Greek beliefs and mythology, and the Corybantes, worshippers of the mother goddess Cybele (possibly the Asia Minor equivalent of the Greek goddess Rhea). Various art and statues were built to them. The worship of Cybele would later intersect with Roman history. According to Livy, during the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage (205 BC), the Sibylline Oracle told the Senate that Carthage would be defeated if the cult of the Mater Deum Magna Idaea (Magna Mater = "Great Mother") was imported into Rome. At the time, Pergamon was Rome's closest ally in the region of the Greek Eastern Mediterranean, and they sought out artifacts from the region that matched the request, where the closest equivalent goddess was Cybele. A sacred stone dedicated to Cybele under Pergamese stewardship was sent to Rome within a year (and possibly other relics), and the new cult in Rome took credit for Rome's eventual victory in 201 BC.[12][23]
Another cult of importance, if more common in the Hellenistic world, was to the goddess Athena. A temple to Athena seems to have been built around the beginning of the third century BC, while Lysimachus still acknowledged Seleucid suzerainty, and portraits of Athena appeared on coinage. A festival was also held called Panathenaia, but nothing is known of it. By 220 BC, Attalus I is recorded as holding important games in Athena's honor, and likely expanding the precincts of Athena's temple. At some point at either the end of Attalus I's rule or near the start of Eumenes II's rule, Athena was given the local title Nikephoros, "bestower of victory." Eumenes II would create a magnificent new two-story temple to Athena, refounded the festival in her honor as the festival of Nikephoria in 181 BC, and dedicated a site outside the city with the name Nikephorion. The Nikephoria would be the most important religious celebration in Pergamum in the 2nd century BC.[24]
After the Pergamese expansion in size and prestige after the Treaty of Apamea, King
Territory
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Territory after the death of Lysimachus in 281 BC. Philetaerus holds just the city of Pergamon and its immediate environs.
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Pergamon's territory in 200 BC, before the outbreak of war with the Seleucids.
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Pergamon's expansion after Roman victory in theRoman–Seleucid War. Rome was eager to weaken the Seleucids by awarding territory to the weaker and Roman-allied Pergamon.
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Another map of Pergamon after 188 BC, showing specific cities in Asia Minor
Dynasty of Pergamon
Attalid dynasty Δυναστεία των Ατταλιδών | |
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Country | Kingdom of Pergamon |
Current region | Western Asia Minor |
Place of origin | Paphlagonia |
Founder | Philetaerus |
Final ruler | Attalus III |
Final head | Eumenes III |
Deposition | 133 BC |
Knowledge of the dates of the reigns of the Attalid kings are largely based on Strabo's Geography, with a few minor corrections by modern historians for apparent slips of the pen.[26][27]
- Philetaerus (282–263 BC)
- Eumenes I (263–241 BC)
- Attalus I Soter (241–197 BC)
- Eumenes II (197–159 BC)
- Attalus IIPhiladelphus (159–138 BC)
- Attalus III (138–133 BC)
- Eumenes III Aristonicus (pretender, 133–129 BC)
A notable aspect of Attalid dynastic propaganda was the unity of the family and the avoiding of petty royal squabbles between siblings that consumed their neighbors in civil wars and assassinations. Perhaps spurred by the precariousness of their royal claim, the Attalids displayed remarkable cooperation between each other. Polybius has Philip V of Macedon praise the Attalids, his enemies, for their unity as instrumental to their success as he mourns the hatred between his own sons that brought down the Antigonid Macedonian kingdom. While this dialogue was surely a literary invention, it seems accurate that the Attalid royal court avoided scandal and appealed well to the common citizenry.[28]
Attalid genealogy
Attalus ∞ Boa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Philetaerus ruler of Pergamon 282–263 BC | Eumenes ∞ Satyra | Attalus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Eumenes I ruler of Pergamon 263–241 BC | Philetaerus (?) | Attalus ∞ Antiochis | Eumenes (?) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Attalus I Soter king of Pergamon 241–197 BC | Apollonis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(?) | Attalus II Philadelphosking of Pergamon 159–138 BC | Philetaerus | Athenaeus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Eumenes III Aristonikos king of Pergamon 133–129 BC | Attalus III Philometor king of Pergamon 138–133 BC | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Namesakes
- Attalea in Lydia, Roman city, former diocese and present Latin Catholic titular bishopric; now Yanantepe
- Attalea in Pamphylia, Roman city, former diocese and present Latin Catholic titular bishopric; now Antalya
References
- ^ Kosmetatou 2003, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Kosmetatou 2003, pp. 160–161.
- ^ a b Hansen 1971, pp. 17–19.
- ^ a b Kosmetatou 2003, p. 161.
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.8.1
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b Hansen 1971, pp. 34–36.
- ^ a b Hansen 1971, pp. 36–43.
- ^ Green, P., "The Road to Sellasia". Alexander to Actium, pp. 264-265
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 46–50.
- ^ a b Kosmetatou 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 57–60.
- ^ Allen 1983, pp. 77, 86.
- ^ Attalus, Eumenes II Soter
- ^ a b c Allen 1983, pp. 76–81.
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 133–135.
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 136–139.
- ^ Allen 1983, pp. 81–83.
- ^ Allen 1983, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Shipley 2000, pp. 318–319.
- ^ Kosmetatou 2003, pp. 165–166.
- ^ Hansen 1971, pp. 50–51, 434–436.
- ^ Allen 1983, pp. 122–129.
- ^ Kosmetatou 2003, pp. 164–165, 167–168.
- ^ Allen 1983, pp. 9–11, 181–183.
- ^ Strabo, Geography, 13.4.1-2; 623-624
- ^ Kosmetatou 2003, pp. 168–170.
Bibliography
- Modern sources
- Allen, Reginald E. (1983). The Attalid Kingdom: A Constitutional History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814845-3.
- Austin, M. M., "The Attalids of Pergamum", The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation, Cambridge University Press, 2006; ISBN 978-0521535618.
- Dignas B., "Rituals and the Construction of Identity in Attalid Pergamon" in Dignas B, Smith RRR (eds.), Historical and Religious Memory in the Ancient World, Oxford University Press, 2012; ISBN 978-0199572069.
- LCCN 71-142284.
- Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003). "The Attalids of Pergamon". In Erskine, Andrew (ed.). A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Blackwell. pp. 159–174. ISBN 0-631-22537-4.
- Shipley (2000). The Greek World After Alexander, 323–30 BC (The Routledge History of the Ancient World), Routledge, first edition, 1999; ASIN: B017PNSW7M
- Ancient sources
- From the Founding of the City, Books 33–35, 42–45
- Periochae, 42.3
- Pausanias, Description of Greece. See 10.15.3
- Polybius, The Histories. See Polybius, Histories, 4.48, 5.77, 7.15 .
External links
- Media related to Pergamon at Wikimedia Commons