Attalus I
Attalus I Soter | |
---|---|
King of Pergamon | |
Reign | 241–197 BC |
Predecessor | Eumenes I |
Successor | Eumenes II |
Born | 269 BC |
Died | 197 BC (aged 72) |
Spouse | Apollonis of Cyzicus |
Issue |
|
Greek | Άτταλος Α΄ Σωτήρ |
Attalid dynasty | |
Father | Attalus |
Mother | Antiochis |
Attalus I (
Attalus won an important victory, the
Attalus styled himself as a protector of the freedoms of the Greek cities of
Early life
Little is known about Attalus' early life. He was
At some point prior to 241 BC, Attalus' father died. If the elder Attalus had been heir designate at some point, he died before he could ever take the throne. The younger Attalus was adopted by Eumenes I, the incumbent dynast. After Eumenes' death in 241 BC, Attalus succeeded to the Pergamene throne.[7]
Defeat of the Galatians
Little is known of the early reign of Attalus. The main recorded event of the era was a battle with the
The prestige gained by the victory caused Attalus to take the surname of Soter, "savior", following the example of
As with other Attalid rulers, Pergamene royal coinage depicted a middle-aged version of Philetaerus, the dynasty's founder. Around the 230s BC, the depiction of Philetaerus changed from a plain band to a diadem entwined with a laurel wreath, the symbol of victory, perhaps to celebrate the defeat of the Galatians.[16]
Pausanias wrote of a surely invented oracle's prophecy which foretold the great victory, allegedly created a generation earlier:[17]
Then having crossed the narrow strait of the
Hellespont,
The destructive army of the Gauls shall pipe; they shall lawlessly
Ravage Asia; and God shall make it yet worse
For all who dwell by the shores of the sea
For a little while. But soon the son of Cronus shall stir up a helper for them,
A dear son of a Zeus-reared bull
Who shall bring a doom on all the Gauls.[17]
Pausanias writes that by "son of a bull", the oracle Phaennis "meant Attalus, king of Pergamon, who was styled bull-horned".
Conflicts with the Seleucid Empire in Asia Minor
Several years after the first victory over the Gauls, Pergamon was again attacked by the Gauls together with their ally
As a result of these victories, Attalus gained putative control over all of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains.[21] He was able to hold on to these gains in the face of repeated attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus, eldest son and successor of Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory.[22] That said, this influence was tenuous; later historians consider any attempt to translate military success into political hegemony in these areas fraught and unlikely to have been successful.[23] Around 226–223 BC, Attalus erected a monument to his battlefield victories in the acropolis of Pergamon, dedicated to Zeus and Athena; a slight adjustment to the artwork on coinage also occurred.[22]
Seleucus III was assassinated in 223 BC after crossing the Taurus into Asia Minor.[24] Achaeus assumed control of the Seleucid army afterward. He was offered and refused the kingship in favor of Seleucus III's younger brother Antiochus III the Great, who then made Achaeus governor of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus. Achaeus embarked upon a remarkably successful campaign, rapidly reclaiming Asia Minor for the Seleucids. Within two years Achaeus had recovered all the lost Seleucid territories and "shut up Attalus within the walls of Pergamon".[25] In a stroke of good fortune for Attalus, Achaeus revolted against Antiochus III around 220 BC and declared himself the Seleucid king.[26]
After a period of peace, in 218 BC, while Achaeus was involved in an expedition to Selge south of the Taurus, Attalus, allied with some Thracian Gauls, recaptured his former territories in Western Asia Minor, establishing the Pergamese state as one of the powers of Asia Minor.[27] However, Achaeus returned from victory in Selge in 217 BC and resumed hostilities with Attalus.[28]
Under a treaty of alliance with Attalus, Antiochus III crossed the Taurus in 216 BC, attacked Achaeus and besieged Sardis, and in 214 BC, the second year of the siege, was able to take the city. However the citadel remained under Achaeus' control. Under the pretense of a rescue, Achaeus was finally captured and put to death, and the citadel surrendered. By 213 BC, Antiochus III had regained control of all of his provinces in the east of Asia Minor.[29]
First Macedonian War
While affairs in the east of his kingdom occupied much of his early reign, the west of Attalus's domain became more active later on. Attalus had sometime before 219 BC become allied with the
Philip's alliance with Hannibal of Carthage in 215 BC caused concern in Rome, then involved in the Second Punic War.[32] In 211 BC, a treaty was signed between Rome and the Aetolian League, a provision of which allowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League, Attalus being one of these.[33] Attalus was elected one of the two strategoi (generals) of the Aetolian League for the year 210/209 BC,[34] and in 210 BC his troops probably participated in capturing the island of Aegina, acquired by Attalus as his base of operations in Greece.[35]
In the following spring (209 BC), Philip marched south into Greece. Under command of
The Romans sacked both Oreus, on the northern coast of Euboea, and Opus, the chief city of eastern Locris. The spoils from Oreus had been reserved for Sulpicius, who returned there, while Attalus stayed to occupy and collect the spoils from Opus. With their forces divided, Philip moved a force to relieve Opus from the occupying Pergamene army. Attalus and his troops, caught by surprise, were barely able to escape to his ships, unarmed and in disorder.[39]
After his inglorious retreat, Attalus learned that Prusias I, king of Bithynia and a relative of Philip V's by marriage, had crossed the border to attack Pergamene territory. Attalus now returned to Asia to meet them, although the details of this conflict are largely unrecorded. Soon after, the Romans also abandoned Greece to concentrate their forces against Hannibal, their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal having been achieved. In 206 BC the Aetolians sued for peace, accepting the conditions imposed by Philip. A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC, formally ending the war. Attalus was included as an adscriptus on the side of Rome.[40] He retained Aegina, but had accomplished little else; Pergamene participation in the war was ultimately "rather ineffective".[41] Since Prusias was also included in the treaty, the conflict between Pergamon and Bithynia also ended by that time.[40]
Introduction of the cult of the Magna Mater to Rome
In 205 BC, following the
A Roman delegation, led by
One aspect of the account which varies in sources is where exactly the stone came from. While Ovid's version says the Mother of Gods was found on Mount Ida, close to Pergamon, most other accounts say it came from Pessinus, which was far inland: a place where Pergamene influence was weak at best and Gallic influence was strong. Whether this was an error in Roman sources unfamiliar with the geography of Asia Minor, or Attalus was on friendly terms with the local Gallic tribes in central Asia Minor in this time period, is unclear.[44]
Macedonian hostilities of 201 BC
Prevented by the treaty of Phoenice from expansion in the west, Philip V of Macedon set out to extend his power in the
The same year, Philip invaded Pergamon; although unable to take the defended city, in part due to precautions taken by Attalus to provide for additional fortifications, he demolished the surrounding temples and altars. Meanwhile, Attalus and Rhodes sent envoys to Rome, to register their complaints against Philip.[49]
Second Macedonian War
In 200 BC, Attalus became involved in the Second Macedonian War. Acarnanians with Macedonian support invaded Attica, causing Athens, which had previously maintained its neutrality, to seek help from the enemies of Philip. Attalus, with his fleet at Aegina, received an embassy from Athens inviting him to the city.[50] A few days later, he learned that Roman ambassadors were also at Athens, and decided to visit. With the Athenians desperate for allies, his reception was extraordinary.[51] Polybius writes:
... in company with the Romans and the Athenian magistrates, he began his progress to the city in great state. For he was met, not only by all the magistrates and the knights, but by all the citizens with their children and wives. And when the two processions met, the warmth of the welcome given by the populace to the Romans, and still more to Attalus, could not have been exceeded. At his entrance into the city by the gate Dipylum the priests and priestesses lined the street on both sides: all the temples were then thrown open; victims were placed ready at all the altars; and the king was requested to offer sacrifice. Finally they voted him such high honors as they had never without great hesitation voted to any of their former benefactors: for, in addition to other compliments, they named a tribe after Attalus, and classed him among their eponymous heroes.[52]
Two of the Athenian tribes named after Macedonians had recently been abolished, perhaps as recently as weeks before Attalus's visit, so the naming of these areas was open. A deme (suburb) was also named after Apollonis, Attalus's wife.[53]
Sulpicius Galba, now
In the spring of 198 BC, Attalus returned to Greece with twenty-three
Also in 198 BC, a renewed struggle with the Seleucid Empire began. King Antiochus III, seemingly taking advantage of Pergamene distraction with the Macedonian War, attacked while Pergamon's ability to defend itself was weak, threatening holdings in Asia Minor.
At the end of his reign, Attalus's kingdom was "hardly any bigger than it had been at the beginning".
Family
Attalus married Apollonis, from Cyzicus. They had four sons, Eumenes, Attalus, Philetaerus and Athenaeus (after Apollonis' father).[68] Apollonis was thought to be a model of motherly love.[69] Polybius describes Apollonis as "a woman who for many reasons deserves to be remembered, and with honor. Her claims upon a favourable recollection are that, though born of a private family, she became a queen, and retained that exalted rank to the end of her life, not by the use of meretricious fascinations, but by the virtue and integrity of her conduct in private and public life alike."[70]
The filial affection of the brothers as well as their upbringing is remarked on by several ancient sources. A decree of
Apollonis died in the mid-second-century BC. In her honor, Attalus' sons built a temple in Cyzicus decorated with bas-reliefs representing several scenes of sons displaying love for their mothers, with one scene also showing love for a father.[69]
References
- ^ Green, p. 264.
- ^ Hansen, p. 26. Livy, 33.21–22, says that Attalus died in the consulship of Cornelius and Minucius (197 BC) at the age of 72, having reigned 44 years. Polybius, 18.41, also says that he died at 72 and reigned 44 years. Strabo, 13.4.2, says that he reigned 43 years.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 46–50; Kosmetatou, p. 163; Gruen 1990, p. 29.
- ^ Hansen, p. 26; Strabo, 13.4.2.
- ^ Hansen, p. 26; Strabo, 13.4.2, says that he was the cousin of Eumenes. Pausanias, 1.8.1, perhaps following Strabo, says the same. Later historians concluded that Strabo had skipped a generation, however.
- ^ Hansen, p. 19; Austin, p. 400.
- ^ a b Hansen, pp. 27-28.
- ^ Green, p. 340.
- ^ Kaye, p. 314.
- ^ Pausanias, 1.8.1.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 28–31; Livy, 38.16.
- ^ Allen, pp. 28–34, suggests the "early 230s." Kosmetatou, p. 161 and Green, p. 150 say circa 237.
- ^ Hansen, p. 31. An Inscription from the Gaul Monument located in the Athena Sanctuary on the acropolis at Pergamon reads: "King Attalos having conquered in battle the Tolistoagii Gauls around the springs of the river Kaikos [set up this] thank-offering to Athena", Pollitt, p. 85, see also Austin, p. 405). Such inscriptions are the main source of information on Attalus' war with the Galatians, see Mitchell, p. 21.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 24, 28, 31; Austin, p. 396; Kosmetatou, p. 161; Mitchell, p. 21; Green p. 151. See Strabo, 13.4.2; Polybius, 18.41.
- ^ Bradford & Bradford, p. 121: "Attalus... commissioned a series of sculptures that depicted the defeat of the Gauls and glorified himself as the champion of Greeks against barbarians"; Wilson, p. 593: "By means of lavish sculpted dedications, Attalus depicted his victories as important achievements, and himself as the champion of Greek freedom against a renewed barbarian threat." Green, p. 339.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 31; 216–219
- ^ a b c Hansen, pp. 32–33. Alternative 1918 translation is at 10.15.3.
- ^ Pollitt, p. 85.
- ^ Dreyfus & Schraudolph, p. 107.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 34–35; Green, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Hansen, p. 36; Kosmetatou, p. 162; Green, p. 264. See Polybius, 4.48.
- ^ a b Hansen, p. 36; Green, p. 265.
- ^ Allen, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Green, p. 265 says it was a member of his own army; Hansen, p. 36 by a Gaul.
- ^ Green, p. 265; Heinen, p. 431. Quote is from Polybius, 4.48.
- ^ Hansen, p. 39.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 41–43. According to Heinen, p. 432, after the expedition of 218, Attalus' kingdom was again the most powerful state in Asia Minor. Bradford & Bradford, p. 121 says "Attalus established Pergamum as a power in the Greek East, but it was to reach its greatest power and prosperity by its alliance with Rome". See Polybius, 5.77.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Hansen, p. 43; Heinen, p. 440. Polybius, 5.107, 7.15–18, 8.17–23.
- ^ Hansen, p. 46; Gruen 1990, p. 29. Polybius, 4.65.
- ^ Kaye, p. 20.
- ^ Hansen, p. 46; Livy, 23.33–34, 38.
- ^ Hansen, p. 47; Livy, 26.24.
- ^ Hansen, p. 47; Livy, 27.29.
- ^ Hansen, p. 47; Gruen 1990, p. 29. Polybius, 9.42 and 22.11.
- ^ Hansen, p. 47; Livy, 27.30.
- ^ Hansen, p. 48; Livy, 27.33.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 48–49; Livy, 28.5; Polybius, 10.42.
- ^ Hansen, p. 49; Livy, 28.5–7; Polybius, 11.7.
- ^ a b Hansen, pp. 49–50; Gruen 1990, pp. 29–30. Livy, 29.12.
- ^ Kosmetatou, p. 163
- ^ a b Hansen, pp. 50–52, 434–436; Gruen 1990, pp. 5–33; Erskine, pp. 205–224; Kosmetatou, p. 163.
- ^ Erskine, p. 210. See Livy, 29.10, 11. The poet Ovid (Fasti, IV 326) portrays Attalus as initially refusing to give up the goddess, only to relent after "the earth shook" and the goddess herself spoke.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 50–52.
- ^ Hansen, p. 52.
- ^ Hansen, p. 53; Errington p. 252.
- ^ Hansen, p. 53; Walbank p. 505; Polybius, 16.2.
- ^ Hansen, p. 54. Polybius, 16.6.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 55–57; Errington, p. 253–257. Livy, 31.2; Polybius, 16.1.
- ^ Hansen, p. 57; Pausanias, 1.36.5–6; Livy, 31.9, 14.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 58–59; Errington, p. 258; Hurwit, pp. 269–271. Livy, 31.14.
- ^ Polybius, 16.25.
- ^ Walbank, pp. 533–535.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 58–60; Errington, pp. 255, 261. Livy, 31.5–8.
- ^ Hansen, p. 61; Grainger, p. 33. Livy, 31.28.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 61–62; Grainger, pp. 33–36. Livy, 31.45.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 62–63; Warrior, p. 87. Livy, 31.46–47.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 63–64; Livy, 32.16,17.
- ^ a b Hansen, p. 64; Gruen 1986, pp. 179, 181; Livy, 32.19–23; Polybius, 18.16.
- ^ Kaye, p. 47
- ^ Hansen, p. 66.
- ^ Hansen, p. 63; Allen, p. 86. However, some scholars doubt the historicity of this Seleucid invasion.
- ^ Hansen, p. 66; Livy, 33.1.
- ^ Hansen, p. 67; Kosmetatou, p. 163. Inscriptions document Pergamene benefactions to the Greeks in general and the Boeotians in particular; see Hansen, p. 19; Livy, 33.2.
- ^ Hansen, p. 67, says he did not die "until the beginning of autumn" citing manumission records dated to August or September 197 BC, and speculates that "he may have heard of the great Roman victory at Cynoscephalae". However Kosmetatou, p. 163, asserts that he died "probably shortly before" the battle.
- ^ a b Allen, p. 86.
- ^ Hansen, p. 67.
- ^ Hansen, pp. 44–45; Hurwit, p. 271. Strabo, 13.4.2.
- ^ a b Paton, p. 149.
- ^ Polybius, 22.20.
- ^ Hansen, p. 45.
- ^ Hansen, p. 45; Austin, pp. 370–371.
- ^ Polybius, 18.41.
- ^ Kosmetatou, pp. 168–170.
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