Om
Om (or Aum) (
Om emerged in the
The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.[17][18]
Common names and synonyms
The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:
- Praṇava (प्रणव); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.[19][20]
- Oṅkāra (ओङ्कार) or oṃkāra (ओंकार); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.[21][22][23][24]
- Ik Oṅkār (ੴ or ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ); literally, "one Om-maker", and an epithet of God in Sikhism. (see below).
- Udgītha (उद्गीथ); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.[25]
- Akṣara(अक्षर); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
Origin and spiritual significance
The etymological origins of ōm (aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for aum, including: from "ām" (आम्; "yes"), from "ávam" (आवम्; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (अव्; "to urge") or "āp-" (आप्; "to attain").[26][A] In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (अथ).[26] However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modern Tamil "ām" (ஆம்) meaning "yes".[26][27] In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, aum' is the word for yes.[citation needed]
Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a "tool for meditation" and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".[28][29]
The syllable Om is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.[9] In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".[9] The symbolic foundations of Om are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.[30][31] The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of Om (a + u + m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.[9][32] However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.[33] The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate Om with bhur-bhuvah-svah, the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to Om, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".[9] The Samaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps Om to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum, Aum, Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.[9]
Pronunciation
When occurring within spoken
However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m".[35][36][37][38] Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.
In the context of the
However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta,[C] and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ([õː] or [oːm]).
Written representations
South Asia
The commonly seen representation of the syllable Om, ॐ, is a
1F549 🕉 OM SYMBOL as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese Om is written simply as ওঁ without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for u redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains [õː]. Similarly, in Odia Om is written as ଓଁ without an additional diacritic.
In Tamil, Om is written as ௐ, a ligature of ஓ (ō) and ம் (m), while in Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, Om is written simply as the letter for ō followed by anusvāra (ಓಂ, ఓం, and ഓം, respectively).
There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in
East and Southeast Asia
The Om symbol, with
In
The
In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 (pinyin: ǎn) or 嗡 (pinyin: wēng).
Representation in various scripts
Northern Brahmic
-
Meitei Mayek, Anji symbol[i]
Southern Brahmic
East Asian
Other
Hinduism
Part of a series on |
Hinduism |
---|
In
It is the most sacred syllable symbol and
It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (pranava) of the universe.[53]
Vedas
Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the
Brahmanas
Aitareya Brahmana
The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains Om as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".[3]
Om is the agreement (pratigara) with a hymn. Likewise is tathā = 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [= the applause]. But Om is something divine, and tathā is something human.
— Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13[3]
Upanishads
Chandogya Upanishad
The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".[55] It calls the syllable Om as udgitha (उद्गीथ; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).[56]
Ṛc (ऋच्) is speech, states the text, and sāman (सामन्) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.[55][56] The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because Adhvaryu invokes it, the Hotr recites it, and Udgatr sings it.[56][57]
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between
Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable Om in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.[57][61] In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self,[62] and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".[63]
Katha Upanishad
The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage Vājaśravasa, who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation).[64] In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge (vidyā) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance (avidyā) as the pursuit of the pleasant.[65] It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.[66]
The word which all the Vedas proclaim,
That which is expressed in everyTapas(penance, austerity, meditation),
That for which they live the life of a Brahmacharin,
Understand that word in its essence: Om! that is the word.
Yes, this syllable is Brahman,
This syllable is the highest.
He who knows that syllable,
Whatever he desires, is his.— Katha Upanishad 1.2.15-1.2.16[66]
Maitri Upanishad
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth Prapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of Om. The text asserts that Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are A + U + M.[67]
The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
- as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
- as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Aditya;
- as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,[E] and Vishnu;
- as mouth-endowed body – garhapatya, dakshinagni, and ahavaniya;[F]
- as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur;[G]
- as world-endowed body – bhūr, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ;[H]
- as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
- as heat-endowed body – breath, fire, and Sun;
- as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
- as thought-endowed body –
Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.[69] The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.[70][71][I]
The world is Om, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).[67]
Mundaka Upanishad
The Mundaka Upanishad in the second Mundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol Om. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).[73][74]
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.[J]
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.
Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad,
one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation,
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That,
Penetrate[K] that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.
Om is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark,
By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated,
One should come to be in It,
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world".[78] Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.[79] This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from A + U + M + "silence" (or without an element).[78][79]
- Om as all states of Time.
- In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are Om. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is Om expressed.[79]
- Om as all states of Ātman .
- In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.[78] Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.[80]
- Om as all states of Consciousness.
- Om as all of Knowledge.
- In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable Om. It states that the first element of Om is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first).[78] The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness).[79] The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation).[78] The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).[78][79]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.[81][82] The text asserts that Om is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).[83]
Ganapati Upanishad
The
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti)
Swargaloka[heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).— Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6[87]
Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana
The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.[88]
Ramayana
In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with Om, with Brahma saying to Rama:
"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable Vashat (on hearing which the Adhvaryu priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable OM. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in brahmanas. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."
— Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 117[89]
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, in the Epic Mahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance of Om in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".[90]
"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the sacred syllable Om. I am the Ṛig Veda, Sāma Veda, and the Yajur Veda."
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:[92]
"Therefore, uttering Om, the acts of
tapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the Brahman."
Puranas
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.
The
Shaiva traditions
In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva.[97] After this, an epithet of
Shakta traditions
In the
Other texts
Yoga Sutra
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's
तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥
His word is Om.— Yogasutra 1.27[101]
Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.[101]
Chaitanya Charitamrita
In
Jainism
In
The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:[104]
ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां
Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".
AAAUM [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [pañca-parameṣṭhi]: "
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra,[106] the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".[104]
Buddhism
Om is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.[107][108]
In
wēng).Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana
In Tibetan
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ to be auṃ, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.[110][111]
Oṃ has been described by the
Japanese Buddhism
A-un
The term A-un (阿吽) is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "hūṃ", written in Devanagari as अहूँ. In Japanese, it is often conflated with the syllable Om. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first (अ) and the last (ह) letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-ūṃ" of "hūṃ". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.[117] In Japanese Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.[118] This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.
The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as "a-un breathing" (阿吽の呼吸, a-un no kokyū) or "a-un relationship" (阿吽の仲, a-un no naka), indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.
Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogs
The term is also used in
Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Agyō), the other closed (Ungyō).[119][120][121]
Sikhism
Ik Onkar (Punjabi: ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ; iconically represented as ੴ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture.[122] Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om ";[123] [L] these words are a statement that there is "one God",[124] understood to refer to the "absolute monotheistic unity of God"[122] and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".[125][M]
According to Pashaura Singh, Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".[126]
Ik Onkar is a significant name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in the Upanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) of creation.[127][N] According to Wazir Singh, Onkar is a "variation of Om (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying seed-force that evolves as the universe".[128] Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled Onkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".[122]
Onkar ('the Primal Sound') created Brahma, Onkar fashioned the consciousness,
From Onkar came mountains and ages, Onkar produced the Vedas,
By the grace of Onkar, people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of Onkar, they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.— Ramakali Dakkhani,Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh[126]
"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (anahat naad or anahad naad). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).[citation needed]
Thelema
For both symbolic and
Modern reception
The Brahmic script Om-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form (ॐ), but the Tibetan Om (ༀ) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.[133]
In meditation
Meditating and chanting of Om can be done by first concentrating on a picture of Om and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said[by whom?] to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.[134][unreliable source?]
See also
- A in Buddhism
- Beej Mantra
- Religious symbol
Notes
- ^ ॐ (U+0950)
- ^ ૐ (U+0AD0)
- ^ ओम् (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)
- ^ ওঁ (U+0993 & U+0981)
- ^ ੴ (U+0A74)
- ^ ꣽ (U+A8FD)
- ^ ᰣᰨᰵ (U+1C23 & U+1C28 & U+1C35)
- ^ ᤀᤥᤱ (U+1900 & U+1925 & U+1931)
- ^ ꫲ (U+AAF2)
- ^ 𑘌𑘽 (U+1160C & U+1163D)
- ^ ଓଁ (U+0B13 & U+0B01)
- ^ ଓଁ (U+0B13 & U+200D & U+0B01)
- ^ 𑑉 (U+11449)
- ^ 𑇄 (U+111C4)
- ^ 𑖌𑖼 (U+1158C & U+115BC)
- ^ 𑩐𑩖𑪖 (U+11A50 & U+11A55 & U+11A96)
- ^ 𑚈𑚫 (U+11688 & U+116AB)
- ^ ༀ (U+0F00)
- ^ 𑓇 (U+114C7)
- ^ ᬒᬁ (U+1B12 & U+1B01)
- ^ ဥုံ (U+1025 & U+102F & U+1036)
- ^ 𑄃𑄮𑄀 (U+11103 & U+1112E & U+11100)
- ^ ꨯꩌ (U+AA05 & U+AA4C)
- ^ ꨀꨯꨱꩌ (U+AA00 & U+AA2F & U+AA31 & U+AA4C)
- ^ 𑍐 (U+11350)
- ^ ꦎꦴꦀ (U+A98E & U+A980 & U+A9B4)
- ^ ಓಂ (U+0C93 & U+0C82)
- ^ ឱំ (U+17B1 & U+17C6)
- ^ ៚ (U+17DA)
- ^ ໂອໍ (U+0EAD & U+0EC2 & U+0ECD)
- ^ ഓം (U+0D13 & U+0D02)
- ^ ඕං (U+0D95 & U+0D82)
- ^ ௐ (U+0BD0)
- ^ ఓం (U+0C13 & U+0C02)
- ^ โอํ (U+0E2D & U+0E42 & U+0E4D)
- ^ ๛ (U+0E5B)
- ^ 唵 (U+5535)
- ^ 옴 (U+C634)
- ^ オーム (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)
- ^ ᢀᠣᠸᠠ (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)
- ^ އޮމ (U+0787 & U+07AE & U+0789)
- ^ 𑣿 (U+118FF)
- ^ Praṇava Upaniṣad in Gopatha Brāhmaṇa 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142
- ^ see Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.95
- ^ see Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes Om as having three mātras corresponding to the three letters a-u-m
- ^ in the early 19th-century manuscript above Om is written अउ३म् with "अउ" as ligature as in ॐ without chandrabindu
- ^ later called Shiva
- ^ this is a reference to the three major Vedic fire rituals
- Vedas
- ^ this is a reference to the three worlds of the Vedas
- ^ Sanskrit original, quote: द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्[72]
- Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Mundaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" [1], page 367
- ^ The Sanskrit word used is Vyadh, which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume, Mundaka Upanishad, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1
- ^ Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."[123]
- ^ Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."[125]
- ^ Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."[127]
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