Aurangzeb

In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located.[107]^[110] Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign.^[111][104] Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed.^[112]

Administrative reforms

Aurangzeb received tribute from all over the Indian subcontinent, using this wealth to establish bases and fortifications in India, particularly in the Carnatic, Deccan, Bengal and Lahore.

Revenue

• 
  Half rupee
• 
  Rupee coin showing full name
• 
  Rupee with square area
• 
  A copper dam of Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb felt that verses from the Quran should not be stamped on coins, as done in former times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feet of people. His coins had the name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other:^[116]

King Aurangzib 'Ālamgir
Stamped coins, in the world, like the bright full moon.^[116]

Law

In 1689, the second Maratha Chhatrapati (King) Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb. In a sham trial, he was found guilty of murder and violence, atrocities^[117] against the Muslims of Burhanpur and Bahadurpur in Berar by Marathas under his command.^[118]

In 1675 the Sikh leader Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested on orders by Aurangzeb, found guilty of blasphemy by a Qadi's court and executed.^[119]

The 32nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (Absolute Missionary) of the Dawoodi Bohra sect of Musta'lī Islam Syedna Qutubkhan Qutubuddin was executed by Aurangzeb, then governor of Gujarat, for heresy; on 27 Jumadil Akhir 1056 AH (1648 AD), Ahmedabad, India.^[120]

• 
  In the year 1689, according to Mughal accounts, Sambhaji was put on trial, found guilty of atrocities^[117] and executed.^[121][122]
• 
  Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Aurangzeb in Delhi^[123]
• 
  Sufi mystic was accused of heresy and executed.^[124]

It is reported that Aurangzeb always inspected his cavalry contingents every day, while testing his cutlasses sheep carcass, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up, in one strike.^[125]

In 1663, during his visit to Ladakh, Aurangzeb established direct control over that part of the empire and loyal subjects such as Deldan Namgyal agreed to pledge tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also known to have constructed a Grand Mosque in Leh, which he dedicated to Mughal rule.^[126]

In 1664, Aurangzeb appointed

In 1685, Aurangzeb dispatched his son, Muhammad Azam Shah, with a force of nearly 50,000 men to capture Bijapur Fort and defeat Sikandar Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur) who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals could not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort,^[128] mainly because of the superior usage of cannon batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on 4 September 1686 and commanded the siege of Bijapur; after eight days of fighting, the Mughals were victorious.^[129]

Only one remaining ruler,

Mughal cannon making skills advanced during the 17th century.^[131] One of the most impressive Mughal cannons is known as the Zafarbaksh, which is a very rare composite cannon, that required skills in both wrought-iron forge welding and bronze-casting technologies and the in-depth knowledge of the qualities of both metals.^[132] The Ibrahim Rauza was a famed cannon, which was well known for its multi-barrels.^[133] François Bernier, the personal physician to Aurangzeb, observed Mughal gun-carriages each drawn by two horses, an improvement over the bullock-drawn gun-carriages used elsewhere in India.^[134]

During the rule of Aurangzeb, In 1703, the Mughal commander at

Aurangzeb was noted for his religious piety; he memorized the entire Quran, studied hadiths and stringently observed the rituals of Islam,^[35][136] and "transcribe[d] copies of the Quran."^[137][138]

Aurangzeb had a more austere nature than his predecessors, and greatly reduced imperial patronage of the figurative

The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to have patronised works of Islamic calligraphy;^[142] the demand for Quran manuscripts in the naskh style peaked during his reign. Having been instructed by Syed Ali Tabrizi, Aurangzeb was himself a talented calligrapher in naskh, evidenced by Quran manuscripts that he created.^[143][144]

Architecture

Aurangzeb was not as involved in architecture as his father. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the position of the Mughal Emperor as chief architectural patron began to diminish. However, Aurangzeb did endow some significant structures. Catherine Asher terms his architectural period as an "Islamization" of

• 
  Seventeenth-century

  Badshahi Masjid

  built by Aurangzeb in Lahore.
• 
  Bibi ka Maqbara.

Textiles

The textile industry in the Mughal Empire emerged very firmly during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and was particularly well noted by Francois Bernier, a French physician of the Mughal Emperor. Francois Bernier writes how Karkanahs, or workshops for the artisans, particularly in textiles flourished by "employing hundreds of embroiderers, who were superintended by a master". He further writes how "Artisans manufacture of silk, fine brocade, and other fine muslins, of which are made turbans, robes of gold flowers, and tunics worn by females, so delicately fine as to wear out in one night, and cost even more if they were well embroidered with fine needlework".^[153]

He also explains the different techniques employed to produce such complicated textiles such as Himru (whose name is Persian for "brocade"), Paithani (whose pattern is identical on both sides), Mushru (satin weave) and how Kalamkari, in which fabrics are painted or block-printed, was a technique that originally came from Persia. Francois Bernier provided some of the first, impressive descriptions of the designs and the soft, delicate texture of Pashmina shawls also known as Kani, which were very valued for their warmth and comfort among the Mughals, and how these textiles and shawls eventually began to find their way to France and England.^[154]

• 
  Shawls manufactured in the Mughal Empire had highly influenced other cultures around the world.
• 
  Shawl makers in the Mughal Empire.
• 
  Mughal imperial carpet

Foreign relations

Aurangzeb sent diplomatic missions to

For decades, the Malabari Mappila Muslims which representing the Mughal empire are already patronized Aceh Sultanate.^[158] Aurangzeb, and his brother, Dara Shikoh, participated with Aceh trade and Aurangzeb himself also exchanging presents with the Sultan of Aceh in 1641.^[158] In that year, it is recorded the daughter of Iskandar Muda, Sultanah Safiatuddin, has presented Aurangzeb with eight elephants.^[159]

When the VOC, or Dutch East India Company trying to disrupt the trade in Aceh to make their own Malaka trade lucrative, Aurangzeb threatened the Dutch with retaliation against any losses in Gujarat due to Dutch intervention.^[158] This effort were caused due to VOC realization that Muslim tradings were damaging to the VOC.^[160] The Firman issued by Aurangzeb caused the VOC to back down and allowed Indian sailors to pass into Aceh, Perak, and Kedah, without any restrictions.^{[158][160][161]}

Relations with the Uzbek

Subhan Quli Khan, Balkh's Uzbek ruler was the first to recognise him in 1658 and requested for a general alliance, he worked alongside the new Mughal Emperor since 1647, when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh.^{[citation needed]}

Relations with the Safavid dynasty

Safavid Iran and the Mughal Empire had long clashed over Kandahar, an outpost on the distant frontier of their two empires. Control of the city swung back and forth.^[162] Aurangzeb led two unsuccessful campaigns to recapture it 1649 and 1652. Mughal attempts died down after 1653 amidst internal rivalries.^[163][164]

Upon ascending the throne, Aurangzeb was eager to obtain diplomatic recognition from the Safavids to bolster the legitimacy of his rule. Abbas II of Persia sent an embassy in 1661. Aurangzeb received the ambassador warmly and they exchanged gifts.^[165] A return embassy sent by Aurangzeb to Persia in 1664 was poorly treated. Tensions over Kandahar rose again. There were cross border raids, but hostilities subsided after Abbas II's death in 1666.^[166]

Aurangzeb's rebellious son,

• 
  March of the Great Moghul (Aurangzeb)
• 
  François Bernier, was a French physician and traveller, who for 12 years was the personal physician of Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in Travels in the Mughal Empire.
• 
  Map of the Mughal Empire by Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718) of Venice, who served as Royal Geographer to Louis XIV of France.
• 
  French map of the Deccan.

Relations with the Sultanate of Maldives

In the 1660s, the Sultan of the Maldives, Ibrahim Iskandar I, requested help from Aurangzeb's representative, the Faujdar of Balasore. The Sultan wished to gain his support in possible future expulsions of Dutch and English trading ships, as he was concerned with how they might impact the economy of the Maldives. However, as Aurangzeb did not possess a powerful navy and had no interest in providing support to Ibrahim in a possible future war with the Dutch or English, the request came to nothing.^[168]

Relations with the Ottoman Empire

Like his father, Aurangzeb was not willing to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the caliphate. He often supported the Ottoman Empire's enemies, extending cordial welcome to two rebel Governors of Basra, and granting them and their families a high status in the imperial service. Sultan Suleiman II's friendly postures were ignored by Aurangzeb.^[169]</ref> The Sultan urged Aurangzeb to wage holy war against Christians.^[170]</ref> However, Aurangzeb were granted as patron of Sharif of Mecca, and sending the Sherif at that time with richly laden mission, which at that time were under the jurisdiction of Ottoman.^[171]

Relations with the English and the Anglo-Mughal War

In 1686, the

In September 1695, English pirate Henry Every conducted one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal grab convoy near Surat. The Indian ships had been returning home from their annual pilgrimage to Mecca when the pirate struck, capturing the Ganj-i-Sawai, reportedly the largest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process. When news of the capture reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armed attack against the English-governed city of Bombay, though he finally agreed to compromise after the Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at £600,000 by the Mughal authorities.^[174] Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the English East India Company's factories, imprisoned the workers and captains (who were nearly lynched by a rioting mob), and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured.^[174] The Lords Justices of England offered a bounty for Every's apprehension, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. However, Every successfully eluded capture.^[175]

In 1702, Aurangzeb sent Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the

Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatched an embassy to India in 1664–65 to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire.^[177]

Relations with the Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Dzungars

After 1679, the

Aurangzeb received an embassy from Muhammad Amin Khan of Chagatai Moghulistan in 1690, seeking assistance in driving out "Qirkhiz infidels" (meaning the Buddhist Dzungars), who "had acquired dominance over the country".

Relations with the Czardom of Russia

Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs,

• In 1669, the Hindu Jat peasants of Bharatpur around
  Mathura rebelled and created Bharatpur State
  but were defeated.
• In 1659, Maratha Emperor Shivaji, launched a surprise attack on the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan and, while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji and his forces attacked the Deccan, Janjira and Surat and tried to gain control of vast territories.^{[citation needed]} In 1689, Aurangzeb's armies captured Shivaji's son Sambhaji and executed him. But the Marathas continued the fight.^[181]
• In 1679, the Rathore clan under the command of Durgadas Rathore of Marwar rebelled when Aurangzeb did not give permission to make the young Rathore prince the king and took direct command of Jodhpur. This incident caused great unrest among the Hindu Rajput rulers under Aurangzeb and led to many rebellions in Rajputana, resulting in the loss of Mughal power in the region and religious bitterness over the destruction of temples.^[182][183]
• In 1672, the
  Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping alive.^[184]
• In 1671, the
  Ahom Kingdom. The Mughals led by Mir Jumla II
  and Shaista Khan attacked and were defeated by the Ahoms.
• Maharaja Chhatrasal was the warrior from Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand, becoming a Maharaja of Panna.^[185]

In 1669,

However, after Aurangeb's death, Jats under Badan Singh later established their independent state of Bharatpur.

Due to the Jat rebellion, the temples of

In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu

In 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan, the Wali in Golconda to recover forts lost to the Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in Pune. But in a daring raid on the governor's palace in Pune during a midnight wedding celebration, led by Shivaji himself, the Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son and Shivaji maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off three fingers of his hand. Shaista Khan, however, survived and was re-appointed the administrator of Bengal going on to become a key commander in the war against the Ahoms.^{[citation needed]}

Aurangzeb next sent general

Shivaji returned to the Deccan, and crowned himself Chhatrapati or the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom in 1674.[206] Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son, Sambhaji.^[207] Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail.

On the other hand, Aurangzeb's third son

Aurangzeb's shift from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency in the Deccan region shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. There were conflicts between Marathas and Mughals in Pune, Jinji, Malwa and Vadodara. The Mughal Empire's port city of Surat was sacked twice by the Marathas during the reign of Aurangzeb and the valuable port was in ruins.^[211] Matthew White estimates that about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, plague and famine.^[212]

• 
  A Mughal trooper in the Deccan.
• 
  Aurangzeb leads his final expedition (1705), leading an army of 500,000 troops.
• 
  Mughal-era aristocrat armed with a matchlock musket.
• 
  Aurangzeb, in later life, hunting with hounds and falconers

Ahom campaign

While Aurangzeb and his brother Shah Shuja had been fighting against each other, the Hindu rulers of

The Mughals set out in November 1661. Within weeks they occupied the capital of Kuch Behar, which they annexed. Leaving a detachment to garrison it, the Mughal army began to retake their territories in Assam. Mir Jumla II advanced on Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, and reached it on 17 March 1662. The ruler, Raja Sutamla, had fled before his approach. The Mughals captured 82 elephants, 300,000 rupees in cash, 1000 ships, and 173 stores of rice.^[214]

On his way back to

The battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 between the Mughal empire (led by the Kachwaha king, Raja Ramsingh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by Lachit Borphukan) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati. Although much weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by brilliant uses of the terrain, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces – its navy.^{[citation needed]}

The battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule.^[216]

Satnami opposition

In May 1672, the

The Satnamis believed they were invulnerable to Mughal bullets and believed they could multiply in any region they entered. The Satnamis initiated their march upon Delhi and overran small-scale Mughal infantry units.[184]

Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. Aurangzeb wrote Islamic prayers and drew designs that were sewn into the army's flags. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion.^[217]

Sikh opposition

In response, Guru Tegh Bahadur's son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh, further militarised his followers, starting with the establishment of Khalsa in 1699, eight years before Aurangzeb's death.^{[221][222][223]} In 1705, Guru Gobind Singh sent a letter entitled Zafarnamah, which accused Aurangzeb of cruelty and betraying Islam.^[224][225] The letter caused him much distress and remorse.^[226] Guru Gobind Singh's formation of Khalsa in 1699 led to the establishment of the Sikh Confederacy and later Sikh Empire.

Pashtun opposition

The Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet

Aurangzeb's incursions into the Pashtun areas were described by Khushal Khan Khattak as "Black is the Mughal's heart towards all of us Pathans".[229] Aurangzeb employed the scorched earth policy, sending soldiers who massacred, looted and burnt many villages. Aurangzeb also proceeded to use bribery to turn the Pashtun tribes against each other, with the aim that they would distract a unified Pashtun challenge to Mughal authority, and the impact of this was to leave a lasting legacy of mistrust among the tribes.^[230]

After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority in the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important

By 1689, the conquest of Golconda, Mughal victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres,

The Indologist

The conquest of the Deccan, to which Aurangzeb devoted the last twenty-six years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of fruitless, chess-game warfare ... The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be imagined or accurately estimated. Alamgir's moving capital alone-a city of tents thirty miles in circumference, two hundred and fifty bazaars, with half a million camp followers, fifty thousand camels, and thirty thousand elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus grain and wealth ... Not only famine, but bubonic plague arose ... Even Alamgir had ceased to understand the purpose for it all by ... 1705. The emperor was nearing ninety by then ... "I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing," the dying old man confessed to his son in February 1707.[238]

Even when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely.^[239] He died at his military camp in Bhingar near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. He had only 300 rupees with him which were later given to charity as per his instructions and he prior to his death requested not to spend extravagantly on his funeral but to keep it simple.^[138][240] His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.

Brown writes that after his death, "a string of weak emperors, wars of succession, and coups by noblemen heralded the irrevocable weakening of Mughal power". She notes that the populist but "fairly old-fashioned" explanation for the decline is that there was a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppression.

Muhammad Al-Munajjid has compilled that the opinions from Islamic scholarly community towards Aurangzeb were positive for the emperor general attitude such as abolished Bid'ah celebrations, musics, and also abolished the customs of bowing and kissing the ground which were done by his predecessors, practically adhering practice of Salafi while still held to Hanafite creed.^{[Notes 1]} Apparently this view of Aurangzeb were influenced by Muhammad Saleh Kamboh,^[264] who acted as his teacher.^[265]

In Pakistan, author Haroon Khalid writes that, "Aurangzeb is presented as a hero who fought and expanded the frontiers of the Islamic empire" and "is imagined to be a true believer who removed corrupt practices from religion and the court, and once again purified the empire."^[266] The academic Munis Faruqui also opines that the "Pakistani state and its allies in the religious and political establishments include him in the pantheon of premodern Muslim heroes, especially lauding him for his militarism, personal piety, and seeming willingness to accommodate Islamic morality within state goals."^[267]

Islamization drive, as "conceptually ... a spiritual descendent of Aurangzeb" because Zia had an orthodox, legalistic view of Islam.^[270][271]

Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, a grand mufti of Egypt, once called Aurangzeb as "A remnant of the Rightly-Guided Rashidun Caliphs", as appreciation of Aurangzeb commitment to Islam teaching.^[272]

Beyond the individual appreciations, Aurangzeb is seminal to Pakistan's national self-consciousness, as historian Ayesha Jalal, while referring to the Pakistani textbooks controversy, mentions M. D. Zafar's A Text Book of Pakistan Studies where we can read that, under Aurangzeb, "Pakistan spirit gathered in strength", while his death "weakened the Pakistan spirit."^[273] Another historian from Pakistan, Mubarak Ali, also looking at the textbooks, and while noting that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation", contrasts him with Aurangzeb, who "appears in different textbooks of Social Studies and Urdu language as an orthodox and pious Muslim copying the Holy Quran and sewing caps for his livelihood."^[274] This image of Aurangzeb is not limited to Pakistan's official historiography.

As of 2015, about 177 towns and villages of India have been named after Aurangzeb.

Shia Muslims.^[278]

Literatures

Aurangzeb has prominently featured in the following books

• 1675 – Aureng-zebe, play by John Dryden, written and performed on the London stage during the Emperor's lifetime.
• 1688 - Alamgirnama by Mirza Mohammed Qasim official biographer at Aurangzeb's court ^[279]
• 19?? – Hindi fiction novel by Acharya Chatursen Shastri^[280]
• 1970 – Shahenshah (Marathi: शहेनशहा), the Marathi fictional biography by N S Inamdar; translated into English in 2017 by Vikrant Pande as Shahenshah – The Life of Aurangzeb
• 2017 – 1636: Mission to the Mughals, by Eric Flint and Griffin Barber
• 2018 – Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth, by Audrey Truschke

Personal info

Ancestry

Ancestors of Aurangzeb
8. Asmat Begam[287] 3. Mumtaz Mahal[281] 14. Ghias ud-din 'Ali Asaf Khan[288] 7. Diwanji Begum[283]

Full title

The epithet Aurangzeb means 'Ornament of the Throne'.^[12] His chosen title Alamgir translates to Conqueror of the World.^[289]

Aurangzeb's full imperial title was:

Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I, Badshah Ghazi, Shahanshah-e-Sultanat-ul-Hindiya Wal Mughaliya.^[290]

Aurangzeb had also been attributed various other titles including Caliph of The Merciful, Monarch of Islam, and Living Custodian of God.^[291][292]

See also

• Flags of the Mughal Empire
• Mughal architecture
• Mughal weapons
• List of largest empires

Notes

1. ^ English: The Honorable, Generous
2. ^ English: Commander of the Faithful
3. Hanafi
4. ^ Regarding the tokenistic aspect of Shah Jahan's actions to strengthen Islam in his empire, Satish Chandra says, "We may conclude that Shah Jahan tried to effect a compromise. While formally declaring the state to be an Islamic one, showing respect to the sharia, and observing its injunctions in his personal life, he did not reject any of the liberal measures of Akbar. ... Shah Jahan's compromise was based not on principle but on expediency."^[76]
5. ^ It has however been argued that the Mughal emperor had political motives for this particular execution. See the article on Sarmad Kashani for references.
6. ^ See also "Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records"; more links at the bottom of that page. For Muslim historian's record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns, from 1193 to 1729 AD, see Richard Eaton (2000), "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp. 283–319

1. ^ through IslamQA.info,^[261] Professor Muhammad al-Munajjid on his online correspondence has answered that he based his opinion Silk ad-Durar fi A'yaan al-Qarn ath-Thaani 'Ashar (4/113)^[262] and Aurangzeb biography by Professor 'Abd al-Mun'im an-Nimr in his book Tareekh al-Islam fi'l-Hind.^[263]

Citations

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33. ^ Sarkar 1912, pp. 64–66.
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36. ^ The Calcutta Review, Volume 75, 1882, p. 87.
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48. ^ Richards (1996, pp. 140, 188)
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    . [Aurangzeb] marched in the direction of Bijapur and on reaching Bidar laid siege to it ... The Qiladar of the fort was Sidi Marjan ... [The Mughals] were helped by an explosion of powder magazine in the fortress ... Sidi Marjan and two of his sons were badly burnt ... Thus was the fort of Bidar taken after a siege of 27 days ... Sidi Marjan died of his wounds soon afterwards ... Aurangzeb arrived at Kalyani.
50. ^ Mukhoty, Ira (17 May 2018). "Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh's fight for the throne was entwined with the rivalry of their two sisters". Scroll.in.
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58. ^ Richards (1996, p. 159)
59. ^
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60. ^
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65. ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (1920). The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911. Clarendon Press. p. 412.
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72. ^ History of Indian Nation: Medieval India. K. K. Publications. 2022. p. 155.
73. ^ ^{a b c} S. M. Ikram; Ainslie T. Embree (1964). "17". Muslim Civilization in India (Ebook). Columbia University Press. Retrieved 25 November 2023. Aurangzeb was most forthright in his efforts to stop sati. According to Manucci, on his return from Kashmir in December, 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt." Manucci adds that "This order endures to this day."/26/ This order, though not mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official guidebooks of the reign./27/ Although the possibility of an evasion of government orders through payment of bribes existed, later European travelers record that sati was not much practiced by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. As Ovington says in his Voyage to Surat: "Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almost laid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces. And now it is 237 very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all; /27/ Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib (Calcutta, 1916), III, 92. /28/ John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat (London, 1929), p. 201.
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75. ^ Indian Archives: Volume 50. National Archives of India. 2001. p. 141.
76. ^
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77. ^ Richards (1996, p. 171)
78. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9
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79. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9
    . Although Aurangzeb had not raised the slogan of defending Islam before the battle of Samugarh with Dara, and had tried to befriend the Rajput rajas as we have seen, there were a number of factors which make it necessary for Aurangzeb to present himself as the defender of the sharia, and to try and win over the theologians. A principal factor was the popular revulsion against his treatment of his brothers, Murad and Dara, both of whom had the reputation of being liberal patrons of the poor and needy. Aurangzeb was shocked when as the time of his second coronation in 1659, the chief qazi refused to crown him since his father was still alive.
80. ^
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    . More importantly, though, the fact that Aurangzeb did not order a universal ban on music lends support to the idea that his regime was less intolerant and repressive than has been widely believed in the past...Thus, the overwhelming evidence against a ban on musical practice in Aurangzeb's reign suggests that the nature of his state was less orthodox, tyrannical and centralised than
81. ISBN 978-0-549-18117-0
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82. ISBN 978-0-631-18555-0
    . learnt that in Multan and Thatta in Sind, and especially at Varanasi, Brahmins attracted a large number of Muslims to their discourses. Aurangzeb ... ordered the governors of all these provinces 'to demolish the schools and temples of the infidels'.
83. ^ "Religions – Sikhism: Guru Tegh Bahadur". BBC. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
84. ^ Sadiq Ali (1918), A Vindication of Aurangzeb: In Two Parts, p. 141
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89. ^ Malik, Zubair & Parveen 2016, pp. 162–163.
90. ^
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91. JSTOR 3596130
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     . he kept changing his policies depending on the needs of the situation ... he had put a brake on the construction of new temples but the repair and maintenance of old temples was permitted. He also generously donated jagirs to many temples to win the sympathies of the people ... firmans include the ones from the temples of Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain), Balaji temple (Chitrakut), Umanand temples (Guwahati) and Jain temples of Shatrunjaya. Also there are firmans supporting other temples and gurudwaras in north India.
104. ^
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105. ^
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     . In early 1670, soon after the ring-leader of these rebellions had been captured near Mathura, Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of the city's Keshava Deva temple and built an Islamic structure ('īd-gāh) on its site ... Nine years later, the emperor ordered the destruction of several prominent temples in Rajasthan that had become associated with imperial enemies. These included temples in Khandela ... Jodhpur ... Udaipur and Chitor.
108. ^ Truschke, Audrey (23 February 2017). "What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders)". Scroll.in. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
109. ^ Shafqat, Arshia (2008). Administration Of Gujarat Under The Mughals (A.D. 1572–1737) (PhD). Aligarh University. p. 194.
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111. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States" (PDF). The Hindu. Chennai, India. p. 297. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2014.
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     . In former times the sacred Quaranic credo (Kalma) used to be stamped on gold and silver coins, and such coins were constantly touched with the hands and feet of men; Aurangzib said that it would be better to stamp some other words ... The Emperor liked it [the couplet] and ordered that one face ... should be stamped with this verse and the other with the name of the mint-city and the year.
117. ^
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118. ^ Richards (1996, p. 223)
119. ISBN 978-1-78076-250-0
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122. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
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123. ^ "A Gateway to Sikhism | Sri Guru Tegh Bhadur Sahib". Gateway to Sikhism. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
124. ISBN 978-0-521-85040-7
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125. JSTOR 25165208
     . ...Bernier reported that the emperor Aurangzeb inspected his contingents of cavalry every day. During these inspections, "the King takes pleasure also in having the blades of cutlasses tried on dead sheep, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up. Young Omrahs, Mansebdars and Gourze-berdars or mace bearers, exercise their skill and put forth all their strength to cut through the four feet, which are fastened together, and the body of the sheep at one blow."..."
126. ISBN 978-81-7387-086-6
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127. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4
     . Shayista Khan ... was appointed [Bengal's] governor in 1664 and swept the region clean of Portuguese and Arakanese pirates ... in 1666, he recaptured the port of Chittagong ... from the king of Arakan. A strategic outpost, Chittagong would remain the principal commercial port of call before entering the waters of the delta.
128. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1
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129. ^ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 3 . Vol. 3. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911 – via Wikisource.
130. ISSN 2643-9670
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131. ISBN 978-81-7211-201-1
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132. ^ Balasubramaniam, R.; Chattopadhyay, Pranab K. (2007). "Zafarbaksh – The Composite Mughal Cannon of Aurangzeb at Fort William in Kolkata" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2015.
133. ^ Douglas, James (1893). Bombay and western India: a series of stray papers. Vol. 2. Sampson Low, Marston & Company.
134. ISBN 978-0-7546-5259-5
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135. ^ Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700, p. 122, at Google Books
136. ISBN 978-1-5036-0257-1
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137. JSTOR 25540640
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139. ^ Imperial Mughal Painting, Stuart Cary Welch, (New York: George Braziller, 1978), pp. 112–113. "In spite of his later austerity, which turned him against music, dance, and painting, a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for [Aurangzeb] 'Alamgir. Perhaps the painters realized that he might close the workshops and therefore exceeded themselves in his behalf".
140. ISBN 978-1-5036-0259-5
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141. ^ "Emirates owner to sell Quran inscribed by Aurangzeb". 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
142. ISBN 978-81-7022-524-9
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143. OCLC 56651142
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146. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4
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147. ^ "Aali Masjid". heritageofkashmir.org. Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
148. ISSN 2356-4644
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150. ^ "World Heritage Sites. Bibi-Ka-Maqbar". Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
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153. ^ Werner, Louis (July–August 2011). "Mughal Maal". Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
154. ^ Hansen, Eric (July–August 2002). "Pashmina: Kashmir's Best Cashmere". Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 27 October 2004. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
155. ISBN 978-1-86189-185-3
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156. ^ Farooqi 1989, pp. 124, 126: "In November 1659, shortly after his formal coronation, Aurangzeb sent ... a diplomatic mission to Mecca ... entrusted with 630.000 rupees for the Sharif families of Mecca and Medina ... Aurangzeb sent another mission to Mecca in 1662 ... with presents worth 660,000 rupees ... Aurangzeb also sent considerable amount of money, through his own agents, to Mecca. In 1666 ... alms and offerings; ... six years later ... several lakhs of rupees; the money was to be spent in charity in Mecca and Medina."
157. ISBN 978-1-4008-3359-7
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158. ^
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     . Retrieved 2 December 2023. ... Aurangzeb and Dara Shukoh participated in Aceh's trade, and Aurangzeb even exchanged presents with Aceh's sultan in 1641. For two decades after the Dutch conquest of Portuguese Melaka in 1641, the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by restricting Muslim trade to Aceh. Angered by
159. ISBN 978-1-351-99745-4
     . Retrieved 11 March 2024. ... 1641 , his daughter , Sultanah Safiatuddin presented Aurangzeb with eight ...
160. ^
     ISBN 978-1-351-99746-1
     . Retrieved 2 December 2023. ... backed out and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh and other southern ports without restriction.74 According to S ...
161. ISBN 978-1-136-84377-8
     . Retrieved 2 December 2023. ... 1660s the VOC backed down and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh, Perak, and Kedah without restriction.ll Another important trading community in Aceh consisted of Indians from the Coromandel Coast who had been prominent in Malay ...
162. ^ Matthee 2012, pp. 122–124.
163. ^ Matthee 2012, pp. 124–125.
164. ^ Farooqi 1989, p. 60.
165. ^ Farooqi 1989, pp. 58–59.
166. ^ Matthee 2012, p. 126.
167. ^ Matthee 2012, p. 136.
168. OCLC 14068594
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169. ^ Farooqi 1989, pp. 332–333: "Aurangzeb, who seized the Peacock throne from Shahjahan, was equally unwilling to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the Khilafat. Hostile towards the Ottomans, the Emperor took every opportunity to support the opponents of the Ottoman regime. He cordially welcomed two rebel Governors of Basra and gave them and their dependents high mansabs in the imperial service. Aurangzeb also did not respond to Sultan Suleiman II's friendly overtures."
170. ^ Farooqi 1989, p. 151: "Suleiman II even solicited Aurangzeb's support against the Christians and urged him to wage holy war against them."
171. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2
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172. ^ "Asia Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Asia | Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World". encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
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177. ^ Bernier, François (1671). Travels in the Mogul Empire: A.D. 1656–1668.
178. ^ "MAASIR-I-'ALAMGIRI" (PDF). dspace.gipe.ac.in.
179. ^ "Russia and India: A civilisational friendship". 9 September 2016.
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183. ^ Burn, Richard, ed. (1937). The Cambridge History of India. Vol. IV. pp. 248–252. Retrieved 15 September 2011. The whole country was soon occupied by the imperialists, anarchy and slaughter were let loose upon the doomed state; all great towns in the village were pillaged; the temples were thrown down
184. ^
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185. ISBN 81-85396-23-X
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186. ^ Avari 2013, p. 131: Crisis arose in the north among the Jat agriculturists dissatisfied with punitive imperial taxation ... The first to rebel against the Mughals were the Hindu Jats.
187. ^ The History of Indian people by Damodar P Singhal pg 196 Quote: "In 1669 the demolition of Hindu temples and building of mosques in Mathura led to a Jat uprising under Gokla"
188. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9
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189. ^ Vīrasiṃha, 2006, "The Jats: Their Role & Contribution to the Socio-economic Life and Polity of North & North-west India, Volume 2", Delhi: Originals , pp. 100–102.
190. ^ Edward James Rap;son, Sir Wolseley Haig and Sir Richard, 1937, "The Cambridge History of India", Cambridge University Press, Volume 4, pp. 305.
191. ^ Waldemar Hansen, 1986, "The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India", p. 454.
192. Tata McGraw-Hill
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193. ^ Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, 1992, "Architecture of Mughal India – Part 1", Cambridge university Press, Vol. 4, p. 108.
194. ISBN 978-81-7436-942-0
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195. ^ Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston, Leslie Haden Guest, 1937, The World of To-day: The Marvels of Nature and the Creations of Man, Vol. 2, p. 510
196. ISBN 978-1-4219-8341-7
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197. ^ Penfield, Frederic Courtland (1907). East to Suez Ceylon, India, China, and Japan. p. 179.
198. ^ Maasir – I – Alamgiri. 1947.
199. ^ Saha, Shandip (2004). Creating a Community of Grace: A History of the Puṣṭi Mārga in Northern and Western India (Thesis). University of Ottawa. pp. 89, 178.
200. ^ Kincaid, Dennis (1937). The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire. London: Collins. pp. 72–78.
201. ^ Kincaid, Dennis (1937). The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire. London: Collins. pp. 121–125.
202. ^ Kincaid, Dennis (1937). The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire. London: Collins. pp. 130–138.
203. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4
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204. OCLC 36806798
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205. OCLC 36806798
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206. ^ Kincaid, Dennis (1937). The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire. London: Collins. p. 283.
207. ISBN 978-81-208-2326-6
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210. ISBN 978-0-521-26883-7
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211. ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1
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212. ISBN 978-0-85786-125-2
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213. OCLC 924890
     . Mir Jumla was appointed governor of Bengal (June 1660) and ordered to punish the kings of Kuch Bihar and Assam.
214. OCLC 924890
     . [Mir Jumla] left Dacca on 1st November 1661 ... the Mughal army entered the capital of Kuch Bihar on 19th December ... The kingdom was annexed to the Mughal empire ... Mir Jumla set out for the conquest of Assam on 4th January, 1662 ... triumphantly marched into Garh-gaon the Ahom capital on 17th March. Raja Jayadhwaj ... had fled .. The spoils ... 82 elephants, 3 lakhs of rupees in cash, ... over a thousand bots, and 173 stores of paddy.
215. OCLC 924890
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216. ^ Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations", in Barpujari, H. K., The Comprehensive History of Assam 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 148–256
217. ^
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218. ^ "PM Modi visits Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi on 400th Prakash Parab of Guru Teg Bahadur". Hindustan Times. 1 May 2021.
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220. ^ "Guru Tegh Bahadur". BBC.
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     . In the letter to Aurangzeb in his Zafarnama, Gobind Singh opposes the emperor not because he is a Muslim, but condemns him because he had betrayed Islam by his deceit, unscrupulousness and intolerance. 'You, who profess belief in the one God and the Koran do not have at heart an atom of faith in them... You neither recognise any God, nor do you have any respect for Prophet Mohammed.'
225. ISBN 978-0-7391-6737-3
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226. ISBN 978-0-520-27419-8
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227. doi:10.1080/03068376008731684
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228. ISBN 978-0-7787-9337-3
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229. ISBN 978-1-315-10607-6
     . 'Black is the Mughal's heart towards all us Pathans', complained the Pushto poet Khushal Khan Khattak about Aurangzeb's incursions in the tribal regions of the northwest frontier of India.
230. ^ Omrani, Bijan (July 2009). "The Durand Line: History and Problems of the Afghan-Pakistan Border". Asian Affairs. XL: 182. The situation deteriorated and matters came to a head in 1675, at the time of the last great Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb. He launched a terrible scorched earth policy, sending thousands of soldiers into the valleys, burning, despoiling, smashing villages and killing as many tribesmen as possible. He also successfully used bribery to set the tribal chiefs against each other, thus fomenting so much mutual suspicion that they were too busy fighting each other to fight the Mughal Empire. This worked up to a point. But the resulting legacy of mistrust between the tribes destroyed any prospect that unified political institutions might slowly emerge or that the laws and government of the settled regions might be adopted.
231. ^
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232. ^ Richards (1996, p. 1)
233. ^ "Prof.dr. J.J.L. (Jos) Gommans". Universiteit Leiden. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
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235. ISBN 978-1-175-48641-7
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236. S2CID 154809724
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237. ^ "Stanley A. Wolpert". UCLA. Archived from the original on 30 September 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
238. ISBN 978-0-19-516677-4
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239. ISBN 978-0-520-08116-1
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240. ^ Sohoni, P., 2016. A Tale of Two Imperial Residences: Aurangzeb's Architectural Patronage. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2), pp. 63–69.[1]
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242. ^ Irvine 1971, p. 33.
243. ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6
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244. ISBN 978-1-5036-0259-5
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245. ISBN 978-0-85773-246-0
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246. ISBN 978-1-61530-201-7
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248. ISBN 978-81-7625-841-8
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250. ISBN 978-1-111-34514-3
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255. ISBN 978-965-264-014-7
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256. ISBN 978-0-14-100143-2
     , pp. 398–399. According to Abraham Eraly, "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed" and later "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705.
     
     Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), p. 115)
257. ISBN 978-969-35-1624-1
     . To start with, Aurangzeb gradually transformed the system of governance as per the dictates of Shariah ... He curbed practices of gambling, drinking, music and prostitution
258. ^ "Mughal dynasty | History, Map, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
259. ^ Avari 2013, p. 115: citing a 2000 study, writes "Aurangzeb was perhaps no more culpable than most of the sultans before him; they desecrated the temples associated with Hindu power, not all temples. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of eighty destructions."
260. ISBN 978-1-5036-0259-5
     . Nobody knows the exact number of temples demolished or pillaged on Aurangzeb's orders, and we never will. Richard Eaton, the leading authority on the subject, puts the number of confirmed temple destructions during Aurangzeb's rule at just over a dozen, with fewer tied to the emperor's direct commands. Other scholars have pointed out additional temple demolitions not counted by Eaton, such as two orders to destroy the Somanatha Temple in 1659 and 1706 (the existence of a second order suggests that the first was never carried out). Aurangzeb also oversaw temple desecrations. For example, in 1645 he ordered mihrabs (prayer niches, typically located in mosques) erected in Ahmedabad's Chintamani Parshvanath Temple, built by the Jain merchant Shantidas. Even adding in such events, however, to quote Eaton, "the evidence is almost always fragmentary, incomplete, or even contradictory". Given this, there were probably more temples destroyed under Aurangzeb than we can confirm (perhaps a few dozen in total?), but here we run into a dark curtain drawn across an unknown past.
261. ^ Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid (18 April 2015). "Biography of the Moghul ruler Aurangzeb; was he Salafi in his 'aqeedah?". IslamQA. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
262. ^ Muhammad Khalil Al-Muradi (1997). سلك الدرر في أعيان القرن الثاني عشر (in Arabic). Dar al Kutub al 'Alamiyya. p. 113. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
263. ^ Nimr, 'Abd al-Mun'im (1981). Tarikh al-Islam fi al-Hind. Beirut : Al-Mu'ssasah al-Jam'iyah al-Dirasat wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi. pp. 286–288. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
264. ^ Deepaj Kamboj (3 September 2014). "Shaikh Inayat-Allah Kamboh". KambojSociety.com. Kamboj Society. Retrieved 18 November 2023. Modern Asian Studies 1988, page 308; Cambridge University Press Online Journals. JSTOR - Asia Shah Jahan, 1975, page 131, Henry Miers Elliot - Mogul Empire
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266. ^ Haroon Khalid (1 October 2018), "In India and Pakistan, religion makes one country's hero the other's villain", Quartz India. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
267. ^ Munis D. Faruqui "Book review of Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King" in Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 87, Issue 1, March 2019, p. 300
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Bibliography

• ISBN 978-0-41558-061-8
• ISBN 978-1-56731-023-8
  .
• Farooqi, Naimur Rahman (1989). Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations. Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli.
  OCLC 20894584
  .
• Malik, Adnan; Zubair, Muhammad; Parveen, Uzman (2016). "Effects of social reforms of shaykh Ahmad sirhindi (1564-1624) on muslim society in the sub continent". Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 55 (2).
  doi:10.46568/jssh.v55i2.70
  . Retrieved 9 March 2024.
• ISBN 978-1-84511-745-0
  .
• Mukerjee, Soma (2001). Royal Mughal ladies and their contributions. Gyan Publishing House.
  ISBN 978-81-212-0760-7
  .
• ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2
  .
• Sarkar, Jadunath (1912). History of Aurangzib Vol. I (PDF). Calcutta: M.C. Sarkar & Sons. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

Further reading

• Eraly, Abraham (2007). The Mughal world. London:
  ISBN 978-0-297-85209-4
  .
• Hansen, Waldemar (1986) [1972 (Holt, Rinehart, Winston)]. The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India (2nd ed.). Motilal Banarsidass.
  ISBN 978-81-208-0225-4
  .
• Irvine, William (1971). The Later Mughals. Atlantic Publishers & Distribution.
• Khan, Khafi (2006) [1718]. Hashim, Muhammad (ed.). Muntakhab-ul Lubab. Pakistan: Sang-e-Meel Publications.
• Khān, Muḥammad Bakhtāvar (1979). Mir'at al-'Alam: History of Emperor Awangzeb Alamgir. Translated by Alvi, Sajida. Lahore: Idārah-ʾi Taḥqīqāt-i Pākistan.
• Kruijtzer, Gijs (2009). Xenophobia in Seventeenth-century India. Leiden University Press.
  ISBN 978-90-8728-068-0
  .
• Qureshi, Ishtiaq Hussain. A Short History of Pakistan. University of Karachi Press.
• Sarkar, Jadunath (1972). History of Aurangzib. Bombay: Orient Longman.
• Singh, Khushwant (2000). Delhi (Open Market ed.). Penguin USA.
  ISBN 0-14-012619-8
  .
• Tillotson, Giles (2008). Taj Mahal. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-674-06365-5
  .
• Truschke, Audrey (2017). Aurangzeb: The Man and The Myth. Penguin India.
  ISBN 9780670089819
  .
  • Truschke, Audrey (2017). Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King. Stanford University Press.
    ISBN 9781503602038
    .

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Aurangzeb.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aurangzeb.

Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Aurungzebe.

• Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records
• Article on Aurganzeb from MANAS group page,
  UCLA
• The great Aurangzeb is everybody's least favourite Mughal – Audrey Truschke | Aeon Essays by Audrey Truschke, published on AEON
• The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe Text of John Dryden's drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, 1675
• Coins of Aurangzeb
• Life of Auranzeb in Urdu (ebook)

Aurangzeb Timurid dynasty Born: c. 1618 Died: 3 March 1707
Regnal titles
Preceded by Shah Jahan	Mughal Emperor 1658–1707	Succeeded by Azam Shah