Australia

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Coordinates: 25°S 133°E / 25°S 133°E / -25; 133
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This article is about the country. For the continent, see Australia (continent). For continental mainland, see mainland Australia. For other uses, see Australia (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Australasia or Austria.

Commonwealth of Australia
Anthem: "Advance Australia Fair"[N 1]
A map of the eastern hemisphere centred on Australia, using an orthographic projection.
  Commonwealth of Australia
  
parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Charles III
David Hurley
Anthony Albanese
LegislatureParliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
House of Representatives
Independence 
from the United Kingdom
1 January 1901
9 October 1942 (with effect
from 3 September 1939)
3 March 1986
Area
• Total
7,692,024[9] km2 (2,969,907 sq mi) (6th)
• Water (%)
1.79 (2015)[10]
Population
• 2023 estimate
Neutral increase 26,758,900[11] (53rd)
• 2021 census
Neutral increase 25,890,773[12]
• Density
3.5/km2 (9.1/sq mi) (192nd)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $1.718 trillion[13] (19th)
• Per capita
Increase $65,366[13] (22nd)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $1.708 trillion[13] (13th)
• Per capita
Increase $64,964[13] (10th)
Gini (2018)Positive decrease 32.5[14]
medium
HDI (2021)Increase 0.951[15]
very high · 5th
CurrencyAustralian dollar ($) (AUD)
Time zoneUTC+8; +9.5; +10 (various[N 3])
• Summer (DST)
UTC+8; +9.5; +10;
+10.5; +11 (various[N 3])
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy[16]
Driving sideleft
Calling code+61
ISO 3166 codeAU
Internet TLD.au

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia,[17] is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands.[18] Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country. Australia is the oldest,[19] flattest,[20] and driest inhabited continent,[21][22] with the least fertile soils.[23][24] It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east.

The ancestors of

artistic and religious traditions in the world.[25] Australia's written history commenced with the European maritime exploration of Australia. The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon was the first known European to reach Australia, in 1606. In 1770, the British explorer James Cook mapped and claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain, and the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Sydney in 1788 to establish the penal colony of New South Wales. The European population grew in subsequent decades, and by the end of the 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and an additional five self-governing British colonies established. Democratic parliaments were gradually established through the 19th century, culminating with a vote for the federation of the six colonies and foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901.[27] This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Act 1986.[27]

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories. Australia's population of nearly 27 million[11] is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard.[28] Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous city and financial centre is Sydney.[29] The next four largest cities are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. It is ethnically diverse and multicultural, the product of large-scale immigration, with almost half of the population having at least one parent born overseas.[30] Australia's abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy, which generates its income from various sources including services, mining exports, banking, manufacturing, agriculture and international education.[31][32][33] Australia ranks amongst the highest in the world for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.[34]

Australia has a

highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally.[35][36] Australia is a regional power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure.[37] It is a member of international groupings including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community; the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence/security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[38]

Etymology

Main article: Name of Australia

The name Australia (pronounced /əˈstreɪliə/ in Australian English[39]) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ("southern land"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.[40] Several sixteenth century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.[41] When Europeans began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, the name Terra Australis was naturally applied to the new territories.[N 4]

Until the early 19th century, Australia was best known as

Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially by that name.[50] The first official published use of the new name came with the publication in 1830 of The Australia Directory by the Hydrographic Office.[51]

Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz" and "the Land Down Under" (usually shortened to just "Down Under"). Other epithets include "the Great Southern Land", "the Lucky Country", "the Sunburnt Country", and "the Wide Brown Land". The latter two both derive from Dorothea Mackellar's 1908 poem "My Country".[52]

History

Main article: History of Australia
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Australian history.

Indigenous peoples

Main articles: Prehistory of Australia and Indigenous Australians
Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley
region of Western Australia

Indigenous Australians comprise two groups: the Aboriginal peoples of the Australian mainland (and surrounding islands including Tasmania), and the Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people. Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,[26][53][54][55] with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.[56] It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.[57][58] The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is recognised as the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.[59] The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago.[60][61]

Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth.

Dreamtime.[67]

The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 4000 years ago.[68] Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas.[69]

European exploration and colonisation

Main articles: European maritime exploration of Australia, European land exploration of Australia, and History of Australia (1788–1850)
Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770
Landing of James Cook at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 to claim Australia's east coast for Great Britain

The northern coasts and waters of Australia were

Weipa on Cape York.[73] Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through and navigated the Torres Strait Islands.[74] The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made,[73] a number of shipwrecks left men either stranded or, as in the case of the Batavia in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent.[75] In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain.[76]

Following the loss of its

Union Flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788,[77][78] a date which later became Australia's national day. Most early convicts were transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (non-convict immigrants). While the majority of convicts settled into colonial society once emancipated, convict rebellions and uprisings were also staged, but invariably suppressed under martial law. The 1808 Rum Rebellion, the only successful armed takeover of government in Australia, instigated a two-year period of military rule.[79] The following decade, social and economic reforms initiated by Governor Lachlan Macquarie saw New South Wales transition from a penal colony to a civil society.[80][81]

The indigenous population declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.[82] Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers.[83]

Colonial expansion

Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of Australia (1851–1900)
A calm body of water is in the foreground. The shoreline is about 200 metres away. To the left, close to the shore, are three tall gum trees; behind them on an incline are ruins, including walls and watchtowers of light-coloured stone and brick, what appear to be the foundations of walls, and grassed areas. To the right lie the outer walls of a large rectangular four-storey building dotted with regularly spaced windows. Forested land rises gently to a peak several kilometres back from the shore.
Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.

The British continued to push into other areas of the continent in the early 19th century, initially along the coast. In 1803, a settlement was established in

Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.[88] South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony.[89] Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts, the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies.[90]

In 1823, a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales was established, together with a new Supreme Court, thus limiting the powers of colonial governors.[91] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[92] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs[93] and defence.[94]

In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills went further inland to determine its agricultural potential and answer scientific questions.[95] A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe,[96] as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold license fees.[97]

From 1886, Australian colonial governments began introducing policies resulting in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities (referred to as the Stolen Generations).[98]

Federation to the World Wars

Main article: History of Australia (1901–1945)
See also: Federation of Australia, Military history of Australia during World War I, and Military history of Australia during World War II
The Big Picture, a painting by Tom Roberts, depicts the opening of the first Australian Parliament in 1901.

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation and the entering into force of the Australian Constitution.[99]

After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing "dominions" within the British Empire.[100][101] Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920,[102] and subsequently of the United Nations in 1945.[103] Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Australia adopted it in 1942,[104] but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.[105][106]

The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.[107] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.[108] Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883)[109] in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920. The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.[110][111][112]

The 1942 Bombing of Darwin, the first of over 100 Japanese air raids on Australia during World War II

In 1914, Australia joined the

Gallipoli in 1915 as the nation's "baptism of fire"—its first major military action,[115][116] with the anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove commemorated each year on Anzac Day.[117]

From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the

other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner.[120] Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the United States, under the ANZUS treaty.[121]

Post-war and contemporary eras

Main article: History of Australia (1945–present)
Postwar migrants from Europe arriving in Australia in 1954

In the decades following World War II, Australia enjoyed significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.[122][123] Using the slogan "populate or perish", the nation encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with such immigrants referred to as "New Australians".[124]

A member of the

Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia,[126] and a bitter splitting of the Labor Party in 1955.[127]

As a result of a

1967 referendum, the Federal Government received a mandate to implement policies to benefit Aboriginal people, and all Indigenous Australians were included in the Census.[128] Traditional ownership of land ("native title") was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that the legal doctrine of terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of European settlement.[129]

Following the final abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973,[130] Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.[131][132] The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Pacific Rim nations.[133] While the Australia Act 1986 severed the remaining vestigial constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom,[134] a 1999 referendum resulted in 55% of voters rejecting a proposal to abolish the Monarchy of Australia and become a republic.[135]

Following the

Iraq War from 2003 to 2009.[136] The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin.[137]

During the

SARS-CoV-2 virus.[138]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Australia and Environment of Australia
See also: Environmental issues in Australia

General characteristics

Map showing the topography of Australia, showing some elevation in the west and very high elevation in mountains in the southeast
Topographic map of Australia. Dark green represents the lowest elevation and dark brown the highest.

Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,

sixth largest country by total area,[141] Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent"[142] and is sometimes considered the world's largest island.[143] Australia has 34,218 km (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),[144] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.[145]

Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° South, and longitudes 112° and 154° East.[146] Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre.[147] The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land.[148] Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm.[149] The population density is 3.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.[150]

Fitzroy Island, one of the 600 islands within the main archipelago of the Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,[151] lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith,[152] is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 m (9,006 ft)), on the remote Australian external territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively.[153]

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 m (5,200 ft) in height.[154] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland.[154][155] These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Mitchell Grass Downs and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland.[156][157][158][159] The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical Cape York Peninsula.[146]

Uluru in the semi-arid region of Central Australia

The landscapes of the

Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast.[166][167][168][169] The Western Australian mulga shrublands lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate Southwest Australia.[168][170]

Geology

Main article: Geology of Australia
Basic geological regions of Australia, by age

Lying on the Indo-Australian Plate, the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history.[171][172] The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. The Pilbara Craton is one of only two pristine Archaean 3.6–2.7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth.[173]

Having been part of all major

Aru Islands, and the mainland of Australia.[175] The Australian continent is moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year.[176]

The Australian mainland's

igneous rocks in the east.[178]

The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the

tectonic plate and have no active volcanoes,[179] but due to passing over the East Australia hotspot, recent volcanism has occurred during the Holocene, in the Newer Volcanics Province of western Victoria and southeastern South Australia. Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands.[180] Seismic activity in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake.[181]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Australia
Köppen climate types of Australia[182]

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the

semi-arid.[149]

Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen more than 1°C since 1960. Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and bushfires. 2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year,[186] and the 2019–2020 bushfire season was the country's worst on record.[187] Australia's greenhouse gas emissions per capita are among the highest in the world.[188]

Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.[189][190] Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the 2000s Australian drought.[191]

Biodiversity

See also: Fauna of Australia, Flora of Australia, and Fungi of Australia
A koala holding onto a eucalyptus tree with its head turned so both eyes are visible
The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair.

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from

thylacines on the mainland.[196] Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries.[197]

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts.[198] Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.[198] Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.[199] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE.[200] Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement,[201] including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.[202][203]

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species.[204] All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world.[205] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.[206] Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;[207][208] 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention,[209] and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.[210] Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 Environmental Performance Index.[211] There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals.[212]

prehistoric rainforest in McGraths Flat, in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid desert and dry shrubland/grassland was once home to an abundance of life.[213][214]

Government and politics

Main articles:
Government of Australia and Politics of Australia
Charles III,
King of Australia
David Hurley,
Governor-General of Australia
Anthony Albanese,
Prime Minister of Australia

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

written constitution and strong bicameralism with an elected upper house), along with distinctive indigenous features.[216][217]

The federal government is separated into three branches:[218]

King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers.[220][221] Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Federal Executive Council. The governor-general, however, does have reserve powers which, in some situations, may be exercised outside the prime minister's request. These powers are held by convention and their scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.[222]

A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.
Parliament House, Canberra

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).[223] The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population,[224] with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[225] Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[223]

Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction,[226] as is enrolment.[227] The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament.[228] Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with an elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation",[229] or as a semi-parliamentary system.[230]

There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the

centre-left.[234] Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Australian Greens are often considered the "third force" in politics, being the third largest party by both vote and membership.[235][236]

The

government.[237]

States and territories

Main article: States and territories of Australia
A map of Australia's states and territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (Qld), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (Tas), Victoria (Vic) and Western Australia (WA)—and three mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), the Northern Territory (NT), and the Jervis Bay Territory (JBT). The ACT and NT are mostly self-governing, except that the Commonwealth Parliament has the power to modify or repeal any legislation passed by the territory parliaments.[238]

Under the constitution, the states essentially have

section 51. For example, state parliaments have the power to legislate with respect to education, criminal law and state police, health, transport, and local government, but the Commonwealth Parliament does not have any specific power to legislate in these areas.[239] However, Commonwealth laws prevail over state laws to the extent of the inconsistency.[240]

Each state and major mainland territory has its own

Chief Minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. In the Commonwealth, the King's representative is the governor-general.[241]

The Commonwealth Parliament also directly administers the external territories of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and the claimed region of Australian Antarctic Territory, as well as the internal Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales.[219] The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the monarch.[242] In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government, integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council.[243] Macquarie Island is part of Tasmania,[244] and Lord Howe Island of New South Wales.[245]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Australia
Diplomatic missions of Australia

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a focus on relationships within the

ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit
.

Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.

Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese with American President Joe Biden in Kantei, Tokyo, 2022

Australia has pursued the cause of international

trade liberalisation.[247] It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,[248][249] and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).[250][251] In recent decades, Australia has entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand.[252]

Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement.[253] The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea.[254] A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism,[255] and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance.[256] Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index.[257]

Military

Main articles: Australian Defence Force, Royal Australian Navy, Australian Army, and Royal Australian Air Force
HMAS Canberra, a Canberra class landing helicopter dock, and HMAS Arunta, an Anzac-class frigate, sailing in formation

Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November 2015. The titular role of

Defence Committee, conjointly with the Secretary of Defence, in the command and control of the Australian Defence Organisation.[259]

In the 2016–2017 budget, defence spending comprised 2% of GDP, representing the world's

First World War
onwards.

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Australia and LGBT rights in Australia

Legal and social rights in Australia are regarded as among the most developed in the world.[34] Attitudes towards LGBT people are generally positive within Australia, and same-sex marriage has been legal in the nation since 2017.[261][262] Australia has had anti-discrimination laws regarding disability since 1992.[263]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Australia
Further information: Economic history of Australia and Tourism in Australia
The central business district of Sydney is the financial centre of Australia.

Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources.[264] It is the world's thirteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP. As of 2021, it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg,[265] and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita.[266] Australia has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022.[267] According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing 3.2 million. It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty.[268][269] The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also shared with three Island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu.[270]

Australian government debt, about $963 billion, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest.[271] Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland.[272] Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas.[273] The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3.6% of total GDP.[274] Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer.[275][276] China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports.[277] Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.[278]

Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked fifth in the

Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism.[283] The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries.[284] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.[283]

Energy

Main articles: Energy policy of Australia and Renewable energy in Australia

In 2003, Australia's energy sources were coal (58.4%), hydropower (19.1%), natural gas (13.5%), liquid/gas fossil fuel-switching plants (5.4%), oil (2.9%), and other renewable resources like wind power, solar energy, and bioenergy (0.7%).[285] During the 21st century, Australia has been trending to generate more energy using renewable resources and less energy using fossil fuels. In 2020, Australia used coal for 62% of all energy (3.6% increase compared to 2013), wind power for 9.9% (9.5% increase), natural gas for 9.9% (3.6% decrease), solar power for 9.9% (9.8% increase), hydropower for 6.4% (12.7% decrease), bioenergy for 1.4% (1.2% increase), and other sources like oil and waste coal mine gas for 0.5%.[286][287]

In August 2009, Australia's government set a goal to achieve 20% of all energy in the country from renewable sources by 2020.[288] They achieved this goal, as renewable resources accounted for 27.7% of Australia's energy in 2020.[286]

Science and technology

In 2019, Australia spent A$35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP.[289] A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.[290] The country's most recognized and important sector of this type is mining,[291] where Australia continues to have the highest penetration of technologies, especially drones, autonomous and remote-controlled vehicles and mine management software.[292] In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined.[293] Australia consistently has ranked high in the Global Innovation Index (GII). In 2022, Australia ranked 25th out of the 132 economies featured in the GII 2022, down from being 22nd in 2019.[294][295]

With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.[296][297] CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.[297] Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy,[298] the essential components of Wi-Fi technology,[299] and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.[300]

Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration. Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA.[301]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Australia
For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Australia by population.

Australia has an average

most sparsely populated countries in the world. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west.[302]

Australia is highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.[303] Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.[304]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2018 the

average age of the Australian population was 38.8 years.[305] In 2015, 2.15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide.[306]

 
Largest populated areas in Australia
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
1 Sydney NSW 5,259,764 11 Geelong
Vic
 289,400
2 Melbourne
Vic
 4,976,157 12 Hobart Tas 251,047
3 Brisbane Qld 2,568,927 13 Townsville Qld 181,665
4 Perth WA 2,192,229 14 Cairns Qld 155,638
5 Adelaide SA 1,402,393 15 Darwin NT 148,801
6
Tweed Heads
 Qld/NSW 706,673 16 Toowoomba Qld 143,994
7 Newcastle–Maitland NSW 509,894 17 Ballarat
Vic
 111,702
8 Canberra–Queanbeyan ACT/NSW 482,250 18 Bendigo
Vic
 102,899
9 Sunshine Coast Qld 355,631 19
Albury-Wodonga
Vic
 97,676
10 Wollongong NSW 305,880 20 Launceston Tas 93,332

Ancestry and immigration

Main article: Immigration to Australia
Australian residents by country of birth, 2021 census

Between 1788 and the

immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. In the decades immediately following the Second World War, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism,[308] and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.[309]

Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations.[310][311] 160,323 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2018–2019 (excluding refugees),[309] whilst there was a net population gain of 239,600 people from all permanent and temporary immigration in that year.[312] The majority of immigrants are skilled,[309] but the immigration program includes categories for family members and refugees.[312] In 2020, the largest foreign-born populations were those born in England (3.8%), India (2.8%), Mainland China (2.5%), New Zealand (2.2%), the Philippines (1.2%) and Vietnam (1.1%).[313]

The

ancestries each census.[314] These ancestry responses are classified into broad standardised ancestry groups.[315] At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses within each standardised group as a proportion of the total population was as follows:[316] 57.2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European), 33.8% Oceanian,[N 7] 17.4% Asian (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian), 3.2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1.4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1.3% Sub-Saharan African. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:[6]

At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous—Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.[N 10][318]

Language

Main article: Languages of Australia

Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the

General Australian serves as the standard dialect.[323]

At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were

Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).[324]

Over 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.[325] The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.[326] The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians.[327] NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.[328]

The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.[329]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Australia
Australia is secular and hosts a diversity of religions. St Mary's Cathedral in Sydney belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, Australia's largest religious denomination.

Australia has no

federal government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.[330] As of 2023, a plurality of Australians are irreligious.[331]

At the 2021 Census, 38.9% of the population identified as having

Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).[6]

In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.

sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.[333]

Health

See also: Health care in Australia

Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females),[334] is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,[335] while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[336][337] Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women[338] and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults;[339] 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[340]

Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.

Medicare levy, currently at 2%.[343] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.[342]

During the COVID-19 pandemic Australia had one of the most restrictive quarantine policies, resulting in one of the lowest death rates worldwide.[344]

Education

Main article: Education in Australia
Five Australian universities rank in the top 50 of the QS World University Rankings, including the Australian National University (19th).[345]

School attendance, or registration for

home schooling,[346] is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories[347] so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.[348][349] In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.[350][351][352][353]

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.[354] However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%.[355]

Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[356] The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[357] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.[358] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications[359] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.[360][361][362]

Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.[363][364] Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.[365] Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed over $28 billion to the economy in 2016–17.[297]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Australia
Ornate white building with an elevated dome in the middle, fronted by a golden fountain and orange flowers
The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne was the first building in Australia to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004.[366]

The country is home to a diversity of cultures, a result of its history of immigration.[367] Prior to 1850, Australia was dominated by Indigenous cultures.[368][369] Since then, Australian culture has primarily been a Western culture, strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic settlers.[370][371] Other influences include Australian Aboriginal culture, the traditions brought to the country by waves of immigration from around the world,[372] and the culture of the United States.[373] The cultural divergence and evolution that has occurred over the centuries since European settlement has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.[374][375]

Arts

Main articles: Australian art, Australian literature, Theatre of Australia, and Dance in Australia
Sidney Nolan's Snake mural (1970), held at the Museum of Old and New Art in Hobart, Tasmania, is inspired by the Aboriginal creation myth of the Rainbow Serpent, as well as desert flowers in bloom after a drought.[376]

Australia has over 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites,[377] and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes;[378] its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye.[379] Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.[380] The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation.[380] While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends.[380] The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira,[381] as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract.[380][382]

bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.[385] Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life.[386] Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.[387] Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan.[388] Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer.[389]

Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council.[390] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[391] and a national opera company, Opera Australia,[392] well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.[393] At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers.[394] Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[395]

Media

Main articles:
Media of Australia, and Music of Australia
Actor playing the bushranger Ned Kelly in The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film

Mad Max series became international blockbusters.[400] In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015.[401] The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.[402]

Australia has two public broadcasters (the

Nine Entertainment Co.[406]

Cuisine

Main article: Australian cuisine
pavlova
is generally eaten at Christmas time.

Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a simple

Anzac biscuits are regarded as iconic Australian foods.[412]

Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine.[413] Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.[414] The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption,[415] with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries. Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres.[416]

Sport and recreation

Main article: Sport in Australia
The Melbourne Cricket Ground is strongly associated with the history and development of cricket and Australian rules football, Australia's two most popular spectator sports.[417]

New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games. It has also participated in every edition of the Cricket World Cup, winning the tournament a record five times.[420]

Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every

Summer Olympics of the modern era,[421] and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney.[422] It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane.[423] Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games,[424] hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018.[425] As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once—the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations.[426]

Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race also attract intense interest.[427] Australia is also notable for water-based sports, such as swimming and surfing.[428] The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.[429] Snow sports take place primarily in the Australian Alps and Tasmania.[430]

See also

Notes

  1. royal anthem is "God Save the King", played in the presence of members of the royal family when they are in Australia. In other contexts, the national anthem of Australia, "Advance Australia Fair", is played.[1]
  2. ^ English does not have de jure status.[4]
  3. ^ a b There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see Time in Australia.
  4. ^ The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name "Austrialia del Espíritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit)[42][43][44] for an island in Vanuatu.[45] The Dutch adjectival form australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.[46]
  5. ^ For instance, the 1814 work A Voyage to Terra Australis
  6. ^ Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60° south latitude.[139]
  7. European ancestry.[317]
  8. European ancestry.[317]
  9. ^ Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.
  10. ^ Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
  1. ^ Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities.[2] Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 persons or more.[3]

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Bibliography

Further reading

Further information: Bibliography of Australian history

External links

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