Austrian Empire
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (December 2021) |
History of Austria |
---|
Austria portal |
The Austrian Empire,
The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon's declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars, except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War. Austria emerged victorious in the war, and became a leading member of the German Confederation along with Prussia after the Congress of Vienna.
The Kingdom of Hungary—as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from the rest of the empire. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary.
History
Foundation
Changes shaping the nature of the
This new empire or "Kaiserthum" (lit. 'Kaiser-dom') comprised all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy, which had until them been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast, the Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary, a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described the state as a Regnum Independens. Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government.[2][3][4]
The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805.
The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with the French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805,
Francis II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg, signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava, Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy. In practice this meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception.
On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him.
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by
Metternich era
Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in the German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts.[5] Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest.
Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks the decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling.
Historians generally consider the Metternich era as a period of stability: the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms.[10] However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire.[10] The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained a stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars.[11]
Revolutions of 1848
From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom, cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire.
The Bach years
After the death of
The pillars of the so-called Bach system (Bachsches System) were, in the words of Adolf Fischhof, four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks.[citation needed] Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen. This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach a very bad reputation amongst Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement.[citation needed]
However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of
In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in the
After 1859
The Constitution of 1861 created a House of Lords (Herrenhaus) and a House of Deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied.
After the
After the
-
Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the lesser coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary)
-
Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the medium coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary)
-
Merchant ensign from 1786 until 1869 and naval and war ensign from 1786 until 1915 (de jure, de facto until 1918)
Foreign policy
The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with the Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France.[15]
Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian
Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the
Despite military defeats of the
The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured
During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation. Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as a whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in the court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain.
During the
Constituent lands
Crown lands of the Austrian Empire after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, including the local government reorganizations from the Revolutions of 1848 to the 1860 October Diploma:
- Archduchy of Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich)
- Lower Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich unter der Enns)
- Upper Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich ob der Enns)
- Duchy of Salzburg (Herzogtum Salzburg), 1815–1850 Salzach District (Salzachkreis) of Upper Austria
- Duchy of Styria (Herzogtum Steiermark)
- Princely County of Tyrol with Vorarlberg (Gefürstete Grafschaft Tirol mit dem Lande Vorarlberg), subdivided in 1861
- Kingdom of Illyria(Königreich Illyrien), subdivided in 1849/1850:
- Duchy of Carinthia (Herzogtum Kärnten)
- Duchy of Carniola (Herzogtum Krain)
- Littoral (Küstenland)
- Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca (Gefürstete Grafschaft Görz und Gradisca)
- Imperial Free City of Trieste (Triest)
- Margraviate of Istria(Markgrafschaft Istrien)
- Lands of the Bohemian Crown
- Kingdom of Bohemia (Königreich Böhmen)
- Margraviate of Moravia (Markgrafschaft Mähren)
- Duchy of Silesia (Herzogtum Schlesien)
- Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien) with
- Duchy of Bukovina (Herzogtum Bukowina), split off in 1850
- Kingdom of Dalmatia (Königreich Dalmatien)
- Kingdom of Hungary(Königreich Ungarn) with
- Kingdom of Croatia (Königreich Kroatien)
- Kingdom of Slavonia (Königreich Slawonien)
- City of Fiume with its territory (Stadt Fiume mit Gebiet), Corpus separatum under Hungary from 1779; part of French Illyrian Provinces from 1809 then Kingdom of Illyria; restored to Hungary in 1822; to Croatia 1849
- Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Lombardo-Venezianisches Königreich), lost in 1859/1866
- Grand Principality of Transylvania (Großfürstentum Siebenbürgen)
- Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar (Woiwodschaft Serbien und Temescher Banat), from 1849, merged into Hungary and Slavonia in 1860
- Serbian Vojvodina, de facto autonomous entity 1848/49, not officially recognized
- Banat of Temeschwar (Banat)
- Military Frontier (Militärgrenze)
- Croatian Military Frontier (Kroatische Militärgrenze)
- Slavonian Military Frontier (Slawonische Militärgrenze)
- Banat Military Frontier (Banater Militärgrenze)
- Transylvanian Military Frontier (Siebenbürger Militärgrenze) merged into Transylvania in 1853
The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg.
From 1850, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Military Frontier constitute a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation.[19]
Administratively, most of the crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise ('circles'), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise),[20] but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54[21] instead instituted a system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867.
In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851[22] (re-divided in 1854[23]); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise.[24]
Education
German was the primary language of higher education in the empire.[25]
Gallery
-
The 'hauskrone' of Rudolph II, later the imperial crown of the Austrian Empire
-
The crown jewels of Austria
-
Growth of the Habsburg Monarchy
-
Vereinstaler of 1866
-
Postage stamp depicting Francis I
-
Postage stamp depicting Franz Joseph I
-
Double-headed eagle at the Ministry of War in Vienna
-
Military districts in Hungarian part of the Empire in 1850
See also
- Former countries in Europe after 1815
- Austria-Hungary
- Cisleithania for the Austrian Empire after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
Notes
- ^ German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich, pronounced [ˌkaɪzɐtuːm ˈøːstəʁaɪç] ⓘ
References
- ^ October Diploma
- ^ Laszlo, Péter (2011), Hungary's Long Nineteenth Century: Constitutional and Democratic Traditions, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands, p. 6,
From the perspective of the Court since 1723, regnum Hungariae had been a hereditary province of the dynasty's three main branches on both lines. From the perspective of the ország, Hungary was regnum independens, a separate Land as Article X of 1790 stipulated ........ In 1804, Emperor Franz assumed the title of Emperor of Austria for all the Erblande of the dynasty and for the other Lands, including Hungary. Thus Hungary formally became part of the Empire of Austria. The Court reassured the diet, however, that the assumption of the monarch's new title did not in any sense affect the laws and the constitution of Hungary
- ^ "Vor dem Jahr 1848 is[t] das Kaisertum Österreich verfassungsrechtlich als ein monarchischer Einheitsstaat auf differenziert föderalistischer Grundlage zu sehen, wobei die besondere Stel[l]ung Ungarns im Rahmen dieses Gesamtstaates stets offenkundig war. Eine weitere Differenzierung der föderalistischen Grundlage erfolgte ab 1815 durch die Zugehörigkeit eines teiles des Kaisertums zum Deutschen Bund." "Before 1848 the Austrian Empire can be regarded in constitutional law as a unitary monarchy on a differentiated federalistic basis, whereby the special position of Hungary within the framework of this federal entity was always evident. A further differentiation of the federalistic position followed from 1815 through the affiliation of a part of the empire to the German federation."Zeilner, Franz (2008), Verfassung, Verfassungsrecht und Lehre des Öffentlichen Rechts in Österreich bis 1848: Eine Darstellung der materiellen und formellen Verfassungssituation und der Lehre des öffentlichen Rechts, Lang, Frankfurt am Main, p. 45
- ^ József Zachar, Austerlitz, 1805. december 2. A három császár csatája – magyar szemmel,[permanent dead link] In: Eszmék, forradalmak, háborúk. Vadász Sándor 80 éves, ELTE, Budapest, 2010 p. 557
- ^ a b c d e Sked, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918. London: Longman, 1989. Print.
- ^ a b c d e f Jelavich, Barbara. The Habsburg Empire in European Affairs: 1814–1918. Chicago: Rand Mcnally, 1969. Print.
- ^ Tuncer, Huner. "Metternich and the Modern Era." Arts–Culture. Daily News, 6 September 1996. Web. 24 March 2015.
- ^ a b Sofka, James R. "Metternich's Theory of European Order: A Political Agenda for 'Perpetual Peace'." The Review of Politics 60.01 (1998): 115. Web.
- ^ a b Handbook of Austria and Lombardy-Venetia Cancellations on the Postage Stamp Issues 1850–1864, by Edwin Mueller, 1961.
- ^ a b Crankshaw, Edward. The Fall of the House of Habsburg. New York: Viking, 1963. Print.
- ^ "History of Austria, Austria in the Age of Metternich." History of Austria, Austria in the Age of Metternich. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 March 2015.
- New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
- ^ Mueller 1961, Historical Data, p. H5.
- ^ Mueller 1961, p. H6.
- ^ Gunther Rothenberg, Napoleon's great adversaries: the Archduke Charles and the Austrian army, 1792–1814 (Indiana UP, 1982).
- ^ Robert Goetz, 1805, Austerlitz: Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition (2005).
- ^ Josephine Bunch Stearns, The Role of Metternich in Undermining Napoleon (University of Illinois Press, 1948).
- ISBN 978-0-7139-9704-0.
- ^ "Najnovije doba hrvatske povjesti (R. Horvat)/Prelom s Ugarskom – Wikizvor". hr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
- ^ Gesetz vom 26. Juni 1849, RGBl. 295/1849: "Kaiserliche Entschließung vom 26. Juni 1849, wodurch die Grunzüge für die Organisation der Politischen Verwaltungs-Behörden genehmiget werden". ÖNB-ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetztexte Online (in German). 26 June 1849. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
- ^ Gesetz vom 19. Jänner 1853, RGBl. 10/1853: "Verordnung der Minister des Inneren, der Justiz und der Finanzen vom 19. Jänner 1853, womit die Allerhöchsten Entschließungen über die Einrichtung und Amtswirksamkeit der Bezirksämter, Kreisbehörden und Statthaltereien, über die Einrichtung der Gerichtsstellen und das Schema der systemisirten Gehalte und Diätenclassen, sowie über die Ausführung der Organisirung für die Kronländer Oesterreich ob und unter der Enns, Böhmen, Mähren, Schlesien, Galizien und Lodomerien mit Krakau, Bukowina, Salzburg, Tirol mit Vorarlberg, Steiermark, Kärnthen, Krain, Görz, Gradiska und Istrien mit Triest, Dalmatien, Kroatien und Slawonien, Siebenbürgen, die serbische Wojwodschaft mit dem Banate, kundgemacht werden". ÖNB-ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetztexte Online (in German). 19 January 1853. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
- ^ "Verordnung des Ministeriums des Inneren vom 12. Mai 1851, wodurch in Folge Allerhöchster Entschließung vom 12. Mai 1851 die Organisirung politischen Verwaltung im Großfürstenthume Siebenbürgen kundgemacht wird". Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt für das Kaiserthum Österreich (in German). 12 May 1851. Retrieved 5 July 2023 – via ÖNB-ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetztexte Online.
- ^ "Verordnung der Minister des Inneren, der Justiz und der Finanzen vom 4. Juni 1854, betreffend die politische und gerichtliche Organisirung des Großfürstenthumes Siebenbürgen". Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt für das Kaiserthum Österreich (in German). 4 June 1854. Retrieved 5 July 2023 – via ÖNB-ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetztexte Online.
- ^ "Verordnung der Minister des Inneren, der Justiz und der Finanzen vom 1. Februar 1854, betreffend die politische und gerichtliche Organisirung der serbischen Woiwodschaft und des Temeser Banates". Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt für das Kaiserthum Österreich (in German). 1 February 1854. Retrieved 5 July 2023 – via ÖNB-ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetztexte Online.
- .
Further reading
- Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2016).
- Evans, R. J. W. (2006). Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867. online[permanent dead link]
- Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016) excerpt
- Kann, Robert A. (1980). A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 (2nd ed.).
- Kissinger, Henry(1955). The World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22.
- Okey, Robin (2002). The Habsburg Monarchy, c. 1765–1918: From Enlightenment to Eclipse. excerpt and text search
- JSTOR 1986702.
- Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1968). "The Austrian Army in the Age of Metternich". Journal of Modern History. 40 (2): 155–165. S2CID 143628536.
- Sked, Alan. "Explaining the Habsburg Empire, 1830–90." in Pamela Pilbeam, ed., Themes in Modern European History 1830–1890 (Routledge, 2002) pp. 141–176.
- Sked, Alan (2008). Metternich and Austria: An Evaluation.
- Sked, Alan (2001). The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918 (2nd ed.).
- Steed, Henry Wickham. The Hapsburg monarchy (1919) online detailed contemporary account
- Taylor, A.J.P. (1941). The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918: A History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. excerpt and text search
External links
- Austrian Army during the Napoleonic Wars
- The empire of Austria; its rise and present power (Third millennium library)