Authorship of the Bible
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There is much disagreement within
Divine authorship
The
Hebrew Bible
The
Torah
The first division of the Jewish Bible is the
According to Rabbinic tradition the five books of the Torah were written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death.[7] Most Jews and Christians believed Mosaic authorship until the 17th century. Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.[8]
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers
From the late 19th century there was a consensus among scholars around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the first four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) were created by combining four originally independent documents, known as the Jahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly sources.[9] This approach has since seen various revisions,[10] yet while the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments" of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented" by later authors/editors.[11] At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century BCE Judah under the Persian empire.[12]
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy is treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. Its place in the documentary hypothesis is anomalous, as it, unlike the other four, consists of a single "source". The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th,
Prophets
Former prophets
The Former Prophets (נביאים ראשונים, Nevi'im Rishonim), make up the first part of the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the Nevi'im, which translates as "Prophets". In Christian Bibles the Book of Ruth, which belongs in the final section of the Hebrew Bible, is inserted between Judges and Samuel.
According to Jewish tradition dating from at least the 2nd century CE, the
Latter prophets
Isaiah
Modern scholars divide the
Jeremiah
Jeremiah lived in the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. The Book of Jeremiah presents Baruch ben Neriah as the prophet's companion who writes his words on several occasions, and there has accordingly been much speculation that Baruch could have composed an early edition of the book.[25] In the early 20th century Sigmund Mowinckel identified three types of material in the book, Jeremiah 1–25 (Type A) being the words of Jeremiah himself, the biographic prose material (Type B) by an admirer writing c. 580–480 BCE, and the remainder (Type C) from later periods.[26] There has been considerable debate over Mowinckel's ideas, notably the extent of the Jeremiah material and the role of Baruch, who may have been the author of the Type B material.[26] It is generally agreed that the book has strong connections with the Deuteronomistic layers from the Former Prophets, recapitulating in modern terms the traditional idea that Jeremiah wrote both his own book and the Books of Kings.[27]
Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of Ezekiel ben-Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon between 593 and 571 BCE.[28] The various manuscripts, however, differ markedly from each other, and it is clear that the book has been subjected to extensive editing.[28] While Ezekiel himself may have been responsible for some of this revision, there is general agreement that the book as we have it today is the product of a highly educated priestly circle that owed allegiance to the historical Ezekiel and was closely associated with the Temple.[28]
Minor Prophets or Book of the Twelve
The
Writings
Psalms
While a number of the Psalms bear headings which seem to identify their authors, these are probably the result of the need to find a significant identification in tradition.[33] The individual psalms come from widely different periods: "some ... presuppose a reigning king and an established cult in the Temple; others clearly presuppose and mention the events of the Exile."[34]
Job
The unknown author of the Book of Job is unlikely to have written earlier than the 6th century BCE, and the cumulative evidence suggests a post-Exilic date.[35] It contains some 1,000 lines, of which about 750 form the original core.[36]
Proverbs
The Book of Proverbs consists of several collections taken from various sources.[37] Verses 10:1–22:16 are probably the oldest section, with chapters 1–9 being composed as a prologue – there is some question whether this happened before or after the Exile (587 BCE). The remaining collections are probably later, with the book reaching its final form around the 3rd century BCE.[38]
Ruth
The
Song of Songs (Song of Solomon)
The Song of Songs was traditionally attributed to Solomon, but modern scholars date it around the 3rd century BCE.[42] Scholars still debate whether it is a single unified work (and therefore from a single author), or more in the nature of an anthology.[43]
Qoheleth/Ecclesiastes
The
Lamentations
Esther
The Book of Esther was composed in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE among the Jews of the eastern diaspora. The genre of the book is the novella or short story, and it draws on the themes of wisdom literature; its sources are still unresolved.[46]
Daniel
The Book of Daniel presents itself as the work of a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BCE; the overwhelming majority of modern scholars date it to the 2nd century BCE.[47] The author, writing in the time of the Maccabees to assure his fellow-Jews that their persecution by the Syrians would come to an end and see them victorious, seems to have constructed his book around the legendary Daniel mentioned in Ezekiel, a figure ranked with Noah and Job for his wisdom and righteousness.[48]
Ezra-Nehemiah
The
Chronicles
Deuterocanonicals/Biblical Apocrypha
The Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches include some or all of the following books in their Bibles.
Additions to Daniel
The Greek text of the Book of Daniel
1 & 2 Esdras
Book of Baruch
The author of the Book of Baruch is traditionally held to be Baruch the companion of Jeremiah, but this is considered unlikely. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees.[55]
1, 2, 3 & 4 Maccabees
The anonymous author of 1 Maccabees was an educated Jew and a serious historian; a date around 100 BCE is most likely.[56] 2 Maccabees is a revised and condensed version of a work by an otherwise unknown author called Jason of Cyrene, plus passages by the anonymous editor who made the condensation (called "the Epitomist"). Jason most probably wrote in the mid to late 2nd century BCE, and the Epitomist before 63 BCE.[57] 3 Maccabees concerns itself with the Jewish community in Egypt a half-century before the revolt, suggesting that the author was an Egyptian Jew, and probably a native of Alexandria. A date of c. 100–75 BCE is "very probable".[58] 4 Maccabees was probably composed in the middle half of the 1st century CE, by a Jew living in Syria or Asia Minor.[59]
Letter of Jeremiah
The Letter of Jeremiah is not by Jeremiah; the author apparently appropriated the name of the prophet to lend authority to his composition. Nor is it by Jeremiah's secretary Baruch, although it appears as the last chapter of Baruch in the Catholic Bible and the KJV. Internal evidence points to a date around 317 BCE, with the author possibly a Jew in Palestine addressing Jews of the diaspora.[60]
Prayer of Manasseh
The Prayer of Manasseh presents itself as a prayer from the wicked, but now penitent, king Manasseh (or Manassas) from his exile in Babylon. The actual author is unknown, and the date of composition is probably the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE.[61]
Wisdom of Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon
Additions to Esther
The
Tobit
Tobit is set in the 8th century BCE and is named after its central character, a pious Jew in exile. The generally recognised date of composition is the early 2nd century BCE.[65]
Judith
The
Additional Psalms
The canonical Psalms contains 150 entries. Psalm 151 is found in most Greek translations, and the Hebrew version was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[67] Psalms 152–155 are part of the Syriac Peshitta Bible, some of which were found at Qumran.
New Testament
Gospels and Acts
The gospels (and Acts) are anonymous, in that none of them provide the name of the author within their text.[68] While the Gospel of John might be considered somewhat of an exception, because the author refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved" and claims to be a member of Jesus' inner circle,[69] most scholars today consider this passage to be a later addition (see below).
The idea of the Gospels being anonymous isn't a new idea. Justin Martyr in his book named "1 apology" explicitly states that the disciples were illiterate.[70] This means that John couldn't have written John, Matthew couldn't have written Matthew and so on and so forth.
There is general agreement among scholars that the
Mark
According to tradition and early church fathers, first attested by
Matthew
Early Christian tradition, first attested by
Luke and Acts
There is general acceptance that the
According to tradition, first attested by
John
John 21:24 identifies the source of the Gospel of John as "the beloved disciple," and from the late 2nd century tradition, first attested by Irenaeus, this figure, unnamed in the Gospel itself, was identified with John the son of Zebedee.[90] Today, however, most scholars agree that John 21 is an appendix to the Gospel, which originally ended at John 20:30–31.[91] However, there is considerable debate about how and when the appendix was added, and by whom. For example, several scholars argue it was added after "the beloved disciple" had died.[92] The majority of scholars date the Gospel of John to c. 80–95,[68][93] and propose that the author made use of two major sources, a "Signs" source (a collection of seven miracle stories) and a "Discourse" source.[94]
Epistles
Pauline epistles
The
Letter to the Hebrews
The Church included the
General epistles
The traditional authors are: Peter the apostle (First and Second Peter); the author of the
Revelation
The author of the
See also
- Authorship of the Johannine works
- Authorship of the Petrine epistles
- Books of the Bible
- Dating the Bible
References
Citations
- ^ Rabin 2006, p. 112
- ^ Rabin 2006, p. 113
- ^ Heschel 2005, p. 539-540,546.
- ^ Olson 2016, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Olson 2016, pp. 92–95.
- ^ Olson 2016, p. 95.
- ^ Jacobs 1995, p. 375
- ISBN 978-0-8091-4082-4. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ Wenham, Gordon (1996). "Pentateuchal Studies Today". Themelios. 22 (1): 3–13.
- ^ Van Seters (1997), p. 16
- ^ Van Seters (2004), pp. 74–79
- ISBN 978-1-57506-122-1.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23737-0.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23737-0.
- ISBN 978-0-567-08088-2. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
- ISBN 978-1-57506-037-8.
- ISBN 978-90-429-0858-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-10266-8.
- ISBN 978-90-429-0858-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8091-2631-6.
- ^ "Introduction to the Book of Isaiah". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved 29 April 2007.
- ^ Kugel, p. 561
- ISBN 978-0-664-25639-5.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-89900-896-7.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-664-25639-5.
- ISBN 978-3-11-017594-3.
- ISBN 978-3-11-017594-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-4452-1.
- ISBN 978-0-86554-524-3.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23747-9.
- ^ "Henry Wansbrough, "The Prayers of the Psalter" ("written for the seventh annual course for monks and nuns during the Easter Vacation at St Benet's Hall, Oxford, at the instigation of the Union of Monastic Superiors and in particular of Sister Zoe, the Prioress of Turvey")". Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-664-22218-5.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-3917-6.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23459-1.
- ISBN 978-0-931464-66-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2526-1.
- ISBN 978-1-85075-978-2. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
- ISBN 978-90-232-3657-3.
- ISBN 978-0-520-21330-2.
- ISBN 978-0-664-22190-4.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23459-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-0488-4.
for linguistic and theological reasons, point to a time of origin for Lamentations as a distinct book only in the third or second century B.C.E.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-567-08468-2.
- ISBN 978-0-674-87531-9.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23744-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ^ P. P. Saydon, "Baruch" by revised by T. Hanlon, in A New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture, ed. Reginald C. Fuller, Thomas Nelson, Inc. Publishers, 1953, 1975, §504h.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.
- ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5.
- ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.
- ISBN 978-0-664-22156-0.
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" pp. 302–10
- ^ "Logos Virtual Library: Saint Justin Martyr: First Apology, 39". www.logoslibrary.org. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ Peter, Kirby (2001–2007). "Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
- ISBN 0-385-19362-9.
- ^ M.G. Easton, Easton's Bible Dictionary (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1996, c1897), "Luke, Gospel According To"
- ISBN 0-385-46993-4.
- ISBN 0-9655047-2-7.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ^ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). pp. 24–27.
- ^ Jens Schroter, Gospel of Mark, in Aune, p. 278
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ^ "Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ^ Ehrman 2004, p. 110 and Harris 1985 both specify a range c. 80–85; Gundry 1982, Hagner 1993, and Blomberg 1992 argue for a date before 70.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4.
- ^ Horrell, DG, An Introduction to the study of Paul, T&T Clark, 2006, 2nd Ed., p. 7; cf. W. L. Knox, The Acts of the Apostles (1948), pp. 2–15 for detailed arguments that still stand.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25018-8.
- ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
- ^ Robbins, Vernon. "Perspectives on Luke-Acts", http://www.christianorigins.com/bylandbysea.html Archived 4 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Originally appeared in: Perspectives on Luke-Acts. C. H. Talbert, ed. Perspectives in Religious Studies, Special Studies Series, No. 5. Macon, Ga: Mercer Univ. Press and Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1978: 215–42.
- ISBN 978-0-8146-1283-5.
- ISBN 978-1-85075-255-4.
- ^ John, Jesus, and History, Volume 2, p. 210 p. 245
- ^ Bruce, F.F. The New Testament Documents: Are they Reliable? p. 7
- ISBN 978-0-664-25018-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
- ^ Ehrman 2004:385
- ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. Archived from the original(EPUB) on 15 February 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
Before showing why most scholars consider them to be written by someone other than Paul, I should give a brief summary of each letter.
- ^ Fonck, Leopold. "Epistle to the Hebrews." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. Web: 30 December 2009.
- ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 81.4
- Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. p. 355
- ISBN 0-19-515462-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
Bibliography
- Olson, Roger E. (2016). The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830899708.
- Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). The Hebrew Bible. A&C Black. ISBN 9780304337033.
- Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish religion: a companion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198264637.
- Rabin, Elliott (2006). Understanding the Hebrew Bible: a reader's guide. KTAV Publishing House. ISBN 9780881258714.
- Perdue, Leo G., ed. (2001). The Blackwell companion to the Hebrew Bible. Blackwell. ISBN 9780631210719.
- Barton, John; Muddiman, John, eds. (2001). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005.
- Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110.
- ISBN 9780062078636.
- Heschel, Abraham Joshua (2005). Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. A&C Black. ISBN 9780826408020.
- Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. 1991. ISBN 9780865543737.
- William David Davies, Steven T. Katz, Louis Finkelstein, "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period" (Cambridge University Press, 2006)
- Brueggemann, Walter, "Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes" (Westminster John Knox, 2002)
- Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998)
- Mays, James Luther, Petersen, David L., Richards, Kent Harold, "Old Testament Interpretation" (T&T Clark, 1995)
- Van Seters, John (1997). In search of history: historiography in the ancient world and the origins of biblical history. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-013-2.
- Van Seters, John (2004). The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary. T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08088-2.
- Wiseman, D.J. (1970). "Books in the Ancient Near East and in the Old Testament". In Ackroyd, P.R.; Evans, C.F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Bible: From the Beginnings to Jerome. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521099738.
Pentateuch
Deuteronomistic history
- de Moor, Johannes Cornelis, and Van Rooy, H. F. (eds), "Past, present, future: the Deuteronomistic history and the prophets" (Brill, 2000)
- Albertz, Rainer (ed) "Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century B.C.E." (Society of Biblical Literature, 2003)
- Romer, Thomas, "The Future of the Deuteronomistic History" (Leuven University Press, 2000)
- Marttila, Marko, "Collective reinterpretation in the Psalms" (Mohr Siebeck, 2006)
Prophets and writings
- Miller, Patrick D. and Peter W. Flint, (eds) "The book of Psalms: composition and reception" (Brill, 2005)
- Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "A history of prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox, 1996)
- Clemets, R.E., "Jeremiah" (John Knox Press, 1988)
- Allen, Leslie C., "Jeremiah: a commentary" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)
- Sweeney, Marvin, "The Twelve Prophets" vol.1 (Liturgical Press, 2000)
- Sweeney, Marvin, "The Twelve Prophets" vol.2 (Liturgical Press, 2000)
New Testament
- Burkett, Delbert Royce, "An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity" (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
- Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010)
- Mitchell, Margaret Mary, and Young, Frances Margaret, "Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine" (Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Further reading
- List of Old and New Testament Authors by Tradition and Conjecture
- Helms, Ronald McCraw (1996?). Who Wrote the Gospels? First ed. Millennium Press. ISBN 0-9655047-2-7