Authorship of the Bible

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)
This article is about modern scholarly approaches to the composition of the biblical texts. For traditional teachings, see Biblical inspiration.

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There is much disagreement within

books of the Bible are the work of multiple authors and that all have been edited to produce the works known today.[2]
The following article outlines the conclusions of the majority of contemporary scholars, along with the traditional views, both Jewish and Christian.

Divine authorship

See also: Biblical inspiration and Prophet

The

2 Corinthians is two letters joined.[6]

Hebrew Bible

The

Tanakh
, is the collection of scriptures making up the Bible used by Judaism; the same books, in a slightly different order, also make up the Protestant version of the Old Testament. The order used here follows the divisions used in Jewish Bibles.

Torah

Main articles: Torah § Composition, and Documentary hypothesis
Sefer Torah

The first division of the Jewish Bible is the

Deuteronomy and stands first in all versions of the Christian Old Testament
.

According to Rabbinic tradition the five books of the Torah were written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death.[7] Most Jews and Christians believed Mosaic authorship until the 17th century. Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.[8]

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers

From the late 19th century there was a consensus among scholars around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the first four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) were created by combining four originally independent documents, known as the Jahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly sources.[9] This approach has since seen various revisions,[10] yet while the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments" of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented" by later authors/editors.[11] At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century BCE Judah under the Persian empire.[12]

Deuteronomy

See also: Deuteronomist § Deuteronomistic history

Deuteronomy is treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. Its place in the documentary hypothesis is anomalous, as it, unlike the other four, consists of a single "source". The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th,

scribes).[14] Deuteronomy was later used as the introduction to the comprehensive history of Israel written in the early part of the 6th century, and later still it was detached from the history and used to round off the Pentateuch.[15]

Prophets

Main article: Nevi'im

Former prophets

See also: Book of Joshua § Composition, Book of Judges § Composition, Books of Samuel § Composition, and Books of Kings § Composition

The Former Prophets (נביאים ראשונים, Nevi'im Rishonim), make up the first part of the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the Nevi'im, which translates as "Prophets". In Christian Bibles the Book of Ruth, which belongs in the final section of the Hebrew Bible, is inserted between Judges and Samuel.

According to Jewish tradition dating from at least the 2nd century CE, the

Babylonian exile (586–539 BCE). This author/editor took as his starting point an early version of the book of Deuteronomy, which had already been composed during the reign of Josiah (last quarter of the 7th century), selecting, editing and composing it to produce a coherent work.[18] Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an earlier version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah's time; this first version, Dtr1, was then revised and expanded to create Noth's second edition, or Dtr2. Still later scholars have discovered further layers and further author-editors.[19] In the 1990s some scholars began to question the existence of a Deuteronomistic history[19] and the question of the origin of these books continues to be debated.[20]

Latter prophets

A fragment of the Book of Isaiah found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Isaiah
Main article: Book of Isaiah § Composition

Modern scholars divide the

Deutero-Isaiah" (chapters 40–55), by an anonymous Jewish author in Babylon near the end of the Babylonian captivity;[21]: 418  and "Trito-Isaiah" (chapters 56–66), by anonymous disciples of Deutero-Isaiah in Jerusalem immediately after the return from Babylon[21]: 444  (although some scholars suggest that chapters 55–66 were written by Deutero-Isaiah after the fall of Babylon).[23] This orderly sequence of pre-exilic, exilic and post-exilic material is somewhat misleading, as some scholars note that significant editing appears to have taken place in all three parts.[24]

Jeremiah
Main article: Book of Jeremiah § Composition

Jeremiah lived in the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. The Book of Jeremiah presents Baruch ben Neriah as the prophet's companion who writes his words on several occasions, and there has accordingly been much speculation that Baruch could have composed an early edition of the book.[25] In the early 20th century Sigmund Mowinckel identified three types of material in the book, Jeremiah 1–25 (Type A) being the words of Jeremiah himself, the biographic prose material (Type B) by an admirer writing c. 580–480 BCE, and the remainder (Type C) from later periods.[26] There has been considerable debate over Mowinckel's ideas, notably the extent of the Jeremiah material and the role of Baruch, who may have been the author of the Type B material.[26] It is generally agreed that the book has strong connections with the Deuteronomistic layers from the Former Prophets, recapitulating in modern terms the traditional idea that Jeremiah wrote both his own book and the Books of Kings.[27]

Ezekiel
Main article: Book of Ezekiel § Composition

The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of Ezekiel ben-Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon between 593 and 571 BCE.[28] The various manuscripts, however, differ markedly from each other, and it is clear that the book has been subjected to extensive editing.[28] While Ezekiel himself may have been responsible for some of this revision, there is general agreement that the book as we have it today is the product of a highly educated priestly circle that owed allegiance to the historical Ezekiel and was closely associated with the Temple.[28]

Minor Prophets or Book of the Twelve
See also: Book of Hosea, Book of Joel, Book of Amos, Book of Obadiah, Book of Jonah, Book of Micah, Book of Nahum, Book of Habakkuk, Book of Zephaniah, Book of Haggai, Book of Zechariah, and Book of Malachi

The

Hellenistic period (332–167 BCE).[32]

Writings

Naomi entreating Ruth and Orpah to return to the land of Moab by William Blake, 1795
See also: Ketuvim

Psalms

Main article: Psalms § Authorship and ascriptions

While a number of the Psalms bear headings which seem to identify their authors, these are probably the result of the need to find a significant identification in tradition.[33] The individual psalms come from widely different periods: "some ... presuppose a reigning king and an established cult in the Temple; others clearly presuppose and mention the events of the Exile."[34]

Job

Main article: Book of Job § Composition

The unknown author of the Book of Job is unlikely to have written earlier than the 6th century BCE, and the cumulative evidence suggests a post-Exilic date.[35] It contains some 1,000 lines, of which about 750 form the original core.[36]

Proverbs

Main article: Book of Proverbs § Authorship

The Book of Proverbs consists of several collections taken from various sources.[37] Verses 10:1–22:16 are probably the oldest section, with chapters 1–9 being composed as a prologue – there is some question whether this happened before or after the Exile (587 BCE). The remaining collections are probably later, with the book reaching its final form around the 3rd century BCE.[38]

Ruth

Main article: Book of Ruth § Authorship and date

The

Samuel as the author of Ruth, but this conflicts with several details inside the book.[39] It has been proposed that the anonymous author was a woman, or if a man then one who took women's issues seriously.[40] The book is largely a unity, although the genealogy of David appears to be a later addition.[41]

Song of Songs (Song of Solomon)

Main article: Song of Songs § Authorship

The Song of Songs was traditionally attributed to Solomon, but modern scholars date it around the 3rd century BCE.[42] Scholars still debate whether it is a single unified work (and therefore from a single author), or more in the nature of an anthology.[43]

Qoheleth/Ecclesiastes

Main article:
Book of Ecclesiastes § Authorship and historical context

The

Book of Ecclesiastes is usually dated to the mid-3rd century BCE. A provenance in Jerusalem is considered likely. The book's claim of Solomon as author is a literary fiction; the author also identifies himself as "Qoheleth", a word of obscure meaning which critics have understood variously as a personal name, a nom de plume, an acronym, and a function; a final self-identification is as "shepherd", a title usually implying royalty.[44]

Lamentations

Main article: Book of Lamentations § Authorship

Jeremiah; linguistic and theological evidence point to its origin as a distinct book in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, with the contents having their origin in special mourning observances in Exilic and post-Exilic Jewish communities.[45]

Esther

Main article: Book of Esther § Authorship and date

The Book of Esther was composed in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE among the Jews of the eastern diaspora. The genre of the book is the novella or short story, and it draws on the themes of wisdom literature; its sources are still unresolved.[46]

Daniel

Main article: Book of Daniel § Dating and content

The Book of Daniel presents itself as the work of a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BCE; the overwhelming majority of modern scholars date it to the 2nd century BCE.[47] The author, writing in the time of the Maccabees to assure his fellow-Jews that their persecution by the Syrians would come to an end and see them victorious, seems to have constructed his book around the legendary Daniel mentioned in Ezekiel, a figure ranked with Noah and Job for his wisdom and righteousness.[48]

Ezra-Nehemiah

Main articles: Book of Ezra § Structure, composition and date; and Book of Nehemiah § Composition and date

The

Ezra-Nehemiah. H.G.M Williamson (1987) proposed three basic stages leading to the final work: (1) composition of the various lists and Persian documents, which he accepts as authentic and therefore the earliest parts of the book; (2) composition of the "Ezra memoir" and "Nehemiah memoir", about 400 BCE; and (3) composition of Ezra 1–6 as the final editor's introduction to the combined earlier texts, about 300 BCE.[49] Lester Grabbe (2003) puts the combination of the two texts Ezra and Nehemiah, with some final editing, somewhat later, in the Ptolemaic period, c. 300–200 BCE.[50]

Chronicles

Main article:
Book of Chronicles § Authorship and composition

Chronicles is an anonymous work from Levitical circles in Jerusalem, probably composed in the late 4th century BCE.[51] Although the book is divided into two parts (1st and 2nd Chronicles), the majority of studies propose a single underlying text with lengthy later additions and amendments to underline certain interests such as the cult or the priesthood.[52]

Deuterocanonicals/Biblical Apocrypha

Book of Tobias
See also:
Biblical Apocrypha

The Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches include some or all of the following books in their Bibles.

Additions to Daniel

Main article:
Prayer of Azariah § Texts and Origin

The Greek text of the Book of Daniel

Song of the Three Holy Children (i.e., the three thrown into the furnace) may have been composed by priestly circles in Jerusalem. Susanna may have been composed around 170–130 BCE in the context of the Hellenisation struggle. Bel and the Dragon is difficult to date, but the late 6th century is possible.[53]

1 & 2 Esdras

Main articles: 1 Esdras § Author and criticism, and 2 Esdras § Author and criticism

Book of Chronicles and the Book of Ezra, but ignores Nehemiah entirely; it was probably composed in the period 200–100 BCE.[54] 2 Esdras
has no connection with the other Esdras books beyond taking Ezra as its central character. It was probably written soon after the destruction of the Temple by the Romans in 70 CE.

Book of Baruch

The author of the Book of Baruch is traditionally held to be Baruch the companion of Jeremiah, but this is considered unlikely. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees.[55]

1, 2, 3 & 4 Maccabees

Main articles: 1 Maccabees § Transmission.2C language and author, 2 Maccabees § Author, 3 Maccabees § Authorship and historicity, and 4 Maccabees § Authorship and criticism

The anonymous author of 1 Maccabees was an educated Jew and a serious historian; a date around 100 BCE is most likely.[56] 2 Maccabees is a revised and condensed version of a work by an otherwise unknown author called Jason of Cyrene, plus passages by the anonymous editor who made the condensation (called "the Epitomist"). Jason most probably wrote in the mid to late 2nd century BCE, and the Epitomist before 63 BCE.[57] 3 Maccabees concerns itself with the Jewish community in Egypt a half-century before the revolt, suggesting that the author was an Egyptian Jew, and probably a native of Alexandria. A date of c. 100–75 BCE is "very probable".[58] 4 Maccabees was probably composed in the middle half of the 1st century CE, by a Jew living in Syria or Asia Minor.[59]

Letter of Jeremiah

Main article: Letter of Jeremiah § Author

The Letter of Jeremiah is not by Jeremiah; the author apparently appropriated the name of the prophet to lend authority to his composition. Nor is it by Jeremiah's secretary Baruch, although it appears as the last chapter of Baruch in the Catholic Bible and the KJV. Internal evidence points to a date around 317 BCE, with the author possibly a Jew in Palestine addressing Jews of the diaspora.[60]

Prayer of Manasseh

The Prayer of Manasseh presents itself as a prayer from the wicked, but now penitent, king Manasseh (or Manassas) from his exile in Babylon. The actual author is unknown, and the date of composition is probably the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE.[61]

Wisdom of Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon

Main articles:
Wisdom of Solomon § Date and authorship

Pharisee teachings.[63]

Additions to Esther

Main article: Book of Esther § Additions to Esther

The

additions to Esther in the Greek translation of Esther of the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE.[64]

Tobit

Main article: Book of Tobit § Date of composition

Tobit is set in the 8th century BCE and is named after its central character, a pious Jew in exile. The generally recognised date of composition is the early 2nd century BCE.[65]

Judith

The

Sadducee circles has also been suggested.[66]

Additional Psalms

Main article: Psalms § Other psalms

The canonical Psalms contains 150 entries. Psalm 151 is found in most Greek translations, and the Hebrew version was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[67] Psalms 152–155 are part of the Syriac Peshitta Bible, some of which were found at Qumran.

New Testament

De evangelist Matteüs en de engel by Rembrandt
See also: Development of the New Testament canon

Gospels and Acts

The gospels (and Acts) are anonymous, in that none of them provide the name of the author within their text.[68] While the Gospel of John might be considered somewhat of an exception, because the author refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved" and claims to be a member of Jesus' inner circle,[69] most scholars today consider this passage to be a later addition (see below).

The idea of the Gospels being anonymous isn't a new idea. Justin Martyr in his book named "1 apology" explicitly states that the disciples were illiterate.[70] This means that John couldn't have written John, Matthew couldn't have written Matthew and so on and so fourth.

There is general agreement among scholars that the

Luke-Acts two halves of a single work.[71][72][73][74][75]

Mark

According to tradition and early church fathers, first attested by

apostle Peter.[76] The gospel, however, appears to rely on several underlying sources, varying in form and in theology, which tells against the tradition that the gospel was based on Peter's preaching.[77] Various elements within the gospel, including the importance of the authority of Peter and the broadness of the basic theology, suggest that the author wrote in Syria or Palestine for a non-Jewish Christian community which had earlier absorbed the influence of pre-Pauline beliefs and then developed them further independent of Paul.[78]

Matthew

Early Christian tradition, first attested by

Antioch in Syria,[83] and that he wrote between 70 and 100 CE[84] using a variety of oral traditions and written sources about Jesus.[85]

Luke and Acts

Main article:
Authorship of Luke-Acts

There is general acceptance that the

Theophilus.[86] This author was an "amateur Hellenistic historian" versed in Greek rhetoric, that being the standard training for historians in the ancient world.[87]

According to tradition, first attested by

Apostle Paul, but many modern scholars have expressed doubt and opinion on the subject is evenly divided.[88] Instead, they believe Luke-Acts was written by an anonymous Christian author who may not have been an eyewitness to any of the events recorded within the text. Some of the evidence cited comes from the text of Luke-Acts itself. In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us" and to having undertaken a "careful investigation", but the author does not mention his own name or explicitly claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events, except for the we passages. And in the we passages, the narrative is written in the first person plural— the author never refers to himself as "I" or "me". To those who are skeptical of an eyewitness author, the we passages are usually regarded as fragments of a second document, part of some earlier account, which was later incorporated into Acts by the later author of Luke-Acts, or simply a Greek rhetorical device used for sea voyages.[89]

John

John 21:24 identifies the source of the Gospel of John as "the beloved disciple," and from the late 2nd century tradition, first attested by Irenaeus, this figure, unnamed in the Gospel itself, was identified with John the son of Zebedee.[90] Today, however, most scholars agree that John 21 is an appendix to the Gospel, which originally ended at John 20:30–31.[91] However, there is considerable debate about how and when the appendix was added, and by whom. For example, several scholars argue it was added after "the beloved disciple" had died.[92] The majority of scholars date the Gospel of John to c. 80–95,[68][93] and propose that the author made use of two major sources, a "Signs" source (a collection of seven miracle stories) and a "Discourse" source.[94]

Epistles

Pauline epistles

Main article: Authorship of the Pauline epistles
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary, for example Romans 16:22 cites a scribe named Tertius.

The

Second Timothy and Titus, are probably all from one author,[95] but most historical-critical scholars regard them as the work of someone other than Paul.[96][97]

Letter to the Hebrews

The Church included the

Letter to the Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul until the Reformation. Pauline authorship is now generally rejected, and the real author is unknown.[98]

General epistles

See also:
General epistles, Epistle of James, First Epistle of Peter, Second Epistle of Peter, First Epistle of John, Second Epistle of John, Third Epistle of John, and Epistle of Jude

The traditional authors are: Peter the apostle (First and Second Peter); the author of the

1 Peter and Jude.[95]

Revelation

Main article: Book of Revelation § Authorship

The author of the

John the Elder of Ephesus, a view which depends on whether a tradition cited by Eusebius was referring to someone other than the apostle. The precise identity of "John" therefore remains unknown.[102]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Rabin 2006, p. 112
  2. ^ Rabin 2006, p. 113
  3. ^ Heschel 2005, p. 539-540,546.
  4. ^ Olson 2016, pp. 90–91.
  5. ^ Olson 2016, pp. 92–95.
  6. ^ Olson 2016, p. 95.
  7. ^ Jacobs 1995, p. 375
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  9. ^ Wenham, Gordon (1996). "Pentateuchal Studies Today". Themelios. 22 (1): 3–13.
  10. ^ Van Seters (1997), p. 16
  11. ^ Van Seters (2004), pp. 74–79
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  23. ^ Kugel, p. 561
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  69. Harris, Stephen L.
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  71. ^ Peter, Kirby (2001–2007). "Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
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  86. ^ Horrell, DG, An Introduction to the study of Paul, T&T Clark, 2006, 2nd Ed., p. 7; cf. W. L. Knox, The Acts of the Apostles (1948), pp. 2–15 for detailed arguments that still stand.
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  92. ^ John, Jesus, and History, Volume 2, p. 210 p. 245
  93. ^ Bruce, F.F. The New Testament Documents: Are they Reliable? p. 7
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  95. ^
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  96. ^ Ehrman 2004:385
  97. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. Archived from the original
    (EPUB) on 15 February 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2017. Before showing why most scholars consider them to be written by someone other than Paul, I should give a brief summary of each letter.
  98. ^ Fonck, Leopold. "Epistle to the Hebrews." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. Web: 30 December 2009.
  99. ^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 81.4
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Bibliography

Pentateuch

Deuteronomistic history

Prophets and writings

New Testament

Further reading

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