Axial tilt
At an obliquity of 0 degrees, the two axes point in the same direction; that is, the rotational axis is perpendicular to the orbital plane.
The rotational axis of
Over the course of an orbital period, the obliquity usually does not change considerably, and the orientation of the axis remains the same relative to the background of stars. This causes one pole to be pointed more toward the Sun on one side of the orbit, and more away from the Sun on the other side—the cause of the seasons on Earth.
Standards
There are two standard methods of specifying a planet's tilt. One way is based on the planet's north pole, defined in relation to the direction of Earth's north pole, and the other way is based on the planet's positive pole, defined by the right-hand rule:
- The
- The IAU also uses the right-hand rule to define a positive pole[5] for the purpose of determining orientation. Using this convention, Venus is tilted 177° ("upside down") and rotates prograde.
Earth
Earth currently has an axial tilt of about 23.44°. below).
History
The ancient Greeks had good measurements of the obliquity since about 350 BCE, when
During the
Seasons
Oscillation
Short term
The exact angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth and
Annual almanacs are published listing the derived values and methods of use. Until 1983, the Astronomical Almanac's angular value of the mean obliquity for any date was calculated based on the work of Newcomb, who analyzed positions of the planets until about 1895:
- ε = 23°27′8.26″ − 46.845″ T − 0.0059″ T2 + 0.00181″ T3
where ε is the obliquity and T is tropical centuries from B1900.0 to the date in question.[17]
From 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the Astronomical Almanac. Obliquity based on DE200, which analyzed observations from 1911 to 1979, was calculated:
- ε = 23°26′21.448″ − 46.8150″ T − 0.00059″ T2 + 0.001813″ T3
where hereafter T is Julian centuries from J2000.0.[18]
JPL's fundamental ephemerides have been continually updated. For instance, according to IAU resolution in 2006 in favor of the P03 astronomical model, the Astronomical Almanac for 2010 specifies:[19]
- ε = 23°26′21.406″ − 46.836769″ T − 0.0001831″ T2 + 0.00200340″ T3 − 5.76″ × 10−7 T4 − 4.34″ × 10−8 T5
These expressions for the obliquity are intended for high precision over a relatively short time span, perhaps ± several centuries.
- ε = 23°26′21.448″ − 4680.93″ t − 1.55″ t2 + 1999.25″ t3 − 51.38″ t4 − 249.67″ t5 − 39.05″ t6 + 7.12″ t7 + 27.87″ t8 + 5.79″ t9 + 2.45″ t10
where here t is multiples of 10,000 Julian years from J2000.0.[21]
These expressions are for the so-called mean obliquity, that is, the obliquity free from short-term variations. Periodic motions of the Moon and of Earth in its orbit cause much smaller (9.2
Long term
Using
The Moon has a stabilizing effect on Earth's obliquity. Frequency map analysis conducted in 1993 suggested that, in the absence of the Moon, the obliquity could change rapidly due to orbital resonances and chaotic behavior of the Solar System, reaching as high as 90° in as little as a few million years (also see Orbit of the Moon).[26][27] However, more recent numerical simulations[28] made in 2011 indicated that even in the absence of the Moon, Earth's obliquity might not be quite so unstable; varying only by about 20–25°. To resolve this contradiction, diffusion rate of obliquity has been calculated, and it was found that it takes more than billions of years for Earth's obliquity to reach near 90°.[29] The Moon's stabilizing effect will continue for less than two billion years. As the Moon continues to recede from Earth due to tidal acceleration, resonances may occur which will cause large oscillations of the obliquity.[30]
Solar System bodies
All four of the innermost, rocky planets of the Solar System may have had large variations of their obliquity in the past. Since obliquity is the angle between the axis of rotation and the direction perpendicular to the orbital plane, it changes as the orbital plane changes due to the influence of other planets. But the axis of rotation can also move (axial precession), due to torque exerted by the Sun on a planet's equatorial bulge. Like Earth, all of the rocky planets show axial precession. If the precession rate were very fast the obliquity would actually remain fairly constant even as the orbital plane changes.[31] The rate varies due to tidal dissipation and core-mantle interaction, among other things. When a planet's precession rate approaches certain values, orbital resonances may cause large changes in obliquity. The amplitude of the contribution having one of the resonant rates is divided by the difference between the resonant rate and the precession rate, so it becomes large when the two are similar.[31]
Mercury and Venus have most likely been stabilized by the tidal dissipation of the Sun. Earth was stabilized by the Moon, as mentioned above, but before its formation, Earth, too, could have passed through times of instability. Mars's obliquity is quite variable over millions of years and may be in a chaotic state; it varies as much as 0° to 60° over some millions of years, depending on perturbations of the planets.[26][32] Some authors dispute that Mars's obliquity is chaotic, and show that tidal dissipation and viscous core-mantle coupling are adequate for it to have reached a fully damped state, similar to Mercury and Venus.[3][33]
The occasional shifts in the axial tilt of Mars have been suggested as an explanation for the appearance and disappearance of rivers and lakes over the course of the existence of Mars. A shift could cause a burst of methane into the atmosphere, causing warming, but then the methane would be destroyed and the climate would become arid again.[34][35]
The obliquities of the outer planets are considered relatively stable.
Body | J2000.0[36] epoch
|
TT[37] epoch
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Axial tilt (degrees) |
North Pole | Rotational period (hours) |
Axial tilt (degrees) |
North Pole | Rotation (deg./day) | |||
R.A. (degrees) | Dec. (degrees) | R.A. (degrees) | Dec. (degrees) | |||||
Sun | 7.25 | 286.13 | 63.87 | 609.12[A] | 7.25[B] | 286.15 | 63.89 | 14.18 |
Mercury | 0.03 | 281.01 | 61.41 | 1407.6 | 0.01 | 281.01 | 61.45 | 6.14 |
Venus | 2.64 | 272.76 | 67.16 | −5832.6 | 2.64 | 272.76 | 67.16 | −1.48 |
Earth | 23.44 | 0.00 | 90.00 | 23.93 | 23.44 | Undefined | 90.00 | 360.99 |
Moon | 6.68 | – | – | 655.73 | 1.54[C] | 270.00 | 66.54 | 13.18 |
Mars | 25.19 | 317.68 | 52.89 | 24.62 | 25.19 | 317.67 | 52.88 | 350.89 |
Jupiter | 3.13 | 268.06 | 64.50 | 9.93[D] | 3.12 | 268.06 | 64.50 | 870.54[D] |
Saturn | 26.73 | 40.59 | 83.54 | 10.66[D] | 26.73 | 40.59 | 83.54 | 810.79[D] |
Uranus | 82.23 | 257.31 | −15.18 | −17.24[D] | 82.23 | 257.31 | −15.18 | −501.16[D] |
Neptune | 28.32 | 299.33 | 42.95 | 16.11[D] | 28.33 | 299.40 | 42.95 | 536.31[D] |
Pluto[E] | 57.47 | 312.99[E] | 6.16[E] | −153.29 | 60.41 | 312.99 | 6.16 | −56.36 |
|
Extrasolar planets
The stellar obliquity ψs, i.e. the axial tilt of a star with respect to the orbital plane of one of its planets, has been determined for only a few systems. By 2012, 49 stars have had sky-projected spin-orbit misalignment λ has been observed,[38] which serves as a lower limit to ψs. Most of these measurements rely on the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect. Since the launch of space-based telescopes such as Kepler space telescope, it has been made possible to determine and estimate the obliquity of an extrasolar planet. The rotational flattening of the planet and the entourage of moons and/or rings, which are traceable with high-precision photometry provide access to planetary obliquity, ψp. Many extrasolar planets have since had their obliquity determined, such as Kepler-186f and Kepler-413b.[39][40]
Astrophysicists have applied tidal theories to predict the obliquity of
See also
- Axial parallelism
- Milankovitch cycles
- Polar motion
- Pole shift
- Rotation around a fixed axis
- True polar wander
References
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- ^ Explanatory Supplement 1992, p. 384
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- ^ "Glossary" in Astronomical Almanac Online. (2023). Washington DC: United States Naval Observatory. s.v. obliquity.
- ^ Chauvenet, William (1906). A Manual of Spherical and Practical Astronomy. Vol. 1. J. B. Lippincott. pp. 604–605.
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- ^ Saliba, George (1994). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. p. 235.
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- ^ Dreyer (1890), p. 123
- ^ Sayili, Aydin (1981). The Observatory in Islam. p. 78.
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U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office; H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. H.M. Stationery Office. Section 2B.
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U.S. Naval Observatory; H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (1989). The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 1990. US Government Printing Office. p. B18. ISBN 978-0-11-886934-8.
- ^ Astronomical Almanac 2010, p. B52
- ^ Newcomb, Simon (1906). A Compendium of Spherical Astronomy. MacMillan. pp. 226–227.
- Bibcode:1986A&A...157...59L. and erratum to article Laskar, J. (1986). "Erratum: Secular terms of classical planetary theories using the results of general theory". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 164: 437.Bibcode:1986A&A...164..437L. Units in article are arcseconds, which may be more convenient.
- ^ Explanatory Supplement (1961), sec. 2C
- ^ "Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 29 October 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
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Meeus, Jean (1991). "Chapter 21". Astronomical Algorithms. Willmann-Bell. ISBN 978-0-943396-35-4.
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Berger, A.L. (1976). "Obliquity and Precession for the Last 5000000 Years". Bibcode:1976A&A....51..127B.
- ^ a b
Laskar, J.; Robutel, P. (1993). "The Chaotic Obliquity of the Planets" (PDF). S2CID 4372237. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 November 2012.
- ^ Laskar, J.; Joutel, F.; Robutel, P. (1993). "Stabilization of the Earth's Obliquity by the Moon" (PDF). Nature. 361 (6413): 615–617. (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Lissauer, J.J.; Barnes, J.W.; Chambers, J.E. (2011). "Obliquity variations of a moonless Earth" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2013.
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- ^ Ward, W.R. (1982). "Comments on the Long-Term Stability of the Earth's Obliquity". .
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- ^ Touma, J.; Wisdom, J. (1993). "The Chaotic Obliquity of Mars" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2010.
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- ^ Rebecca Boyle (7 October 2017). "Methane burps on young Mars helped it keep its liquid water". New Scientist.
- (PDF) from the original on 23 July 2018.
- ^ Planetary Fact Sheets, at http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov
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- ^ Heller, R. "Holt-Rossiter-McLaughlin Encyclopaedia". René Heller. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
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Heller, R.; Leconte, J.; Barnes, R. (2011). "Tidal obliquity evolution of potentially habitable planets". S2CID 118784209.
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Heller, R.; Leconte, J.; Barnes, R. (2011). "Habitability of Extrasolar Planets and Tidal Spin Evolution". Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 41 (6): 539–43. S2CID 10154158.
External links
- National Space Science Data Center
- Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; et al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. .
- Obliquity of the Ecliptic Calculator