Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand | |
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Leningrad State University | |
Period | 1934–1982 |
Notable works | Full list |
Spouse | [b] |
Signature | |
Alice O'Connor (born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum;[c] February 2 [O.S. January 20], 1905 – March 6, 1982), better known by her pen name Ayn Rand (/aɪn/ INE), was a Russian-born American author and philosopher.[3] She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two Broadway plays, Rand achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead. In 1957, she published her best-selling work, the novel Atlas Shrugged. Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays.
Rand advocated
Rand's books have sold over 37 million copies. Her fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics, with reviews becoming more negative for her later work.
Life
Early life
Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, into a Jewish
When Russian universities were opened to women after the revolution, Rand was among the first to enroll at
In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago.[26] She arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926.[27] Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives learning English[28] before leaving for Hollywood, California.[29]
In Hollywood a chance meeting with director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film The King of Kings and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter.[30] While working on The King of Kings, she met the aspiring actor Frank O'Connor;[b] they married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931.[31][32][f] She tried to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they could not obtain permission to emigrate.[35][36]
Early fiction
Rand's first literary success was the sale of her screenplay
Her first novel, the semi-autobiographical
Rand started her next major novel,
The Fountainhead and political activism
During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband were full-time volunteers for Republican
Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with The Fountainhead,
The success of The Fountainhead brought Rand fame and financial security.
After several delays, the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end" and complained about its editing, the acting and other elements.[73]
Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism
Following the publication of The Fountainhead, Rand received many letters from readers, some of whom the book had influenced profoundly.[75] In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers who met at Rand's apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy. The group included future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Later, Rand began allowing them to read the manuscript drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged.[76] In 1954, her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair. This change occurred with the knowledge of both their spouses,[77] although historian Jennifer Burns concludes that O'Connor was likely "the hardest hit" emotionally by the affair.[78]
Published in 1957, Atlas Shrugged is considered Rand's
Despite many negative reviews, Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller,[84] but the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand.[65][85] Atlas Shrugged was her last completed work of fiction, marking the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.[86]
In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the
Later years
Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through nonfiction works and speeches at colleges and universities.
In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. As her relationship with Nathaniel Branden deteriorated, Rand had her husband be present for difficult conversations between her and Branden.[109] In 1968, Rand learned about Branden's relationship with Scott. Though her romantic involvement with Nathaniel Branden was already over,[110] Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens, and the NBI was closed.[111] She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and "irrational behavior in his private life".[112] In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.[113][114]
Rand had surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.[115] In 1976, she retired from her newsletter and, after her initial objections, allowed a social worker employed by her attorney to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare.[116][117] Her activities in the Objectivist movement declined, especially after her husband's death on November 9, 1979.[118] One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged.[119]
On March 6, 1982, Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City.[120] Her funeral included a 6-foot (1.8 m) floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign.[121] In her will, Rand named Peikoff as her heir.[122]
Literary approach, influences and reception
Rand described her approach to literature as "
Rand considered plot a critical element of literature,
Influences
In school, Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her favorites.[132] She considered them to be among the "top rank" of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots.[133] Hugo was an important influence on her writing, especially her approach to plotting. In the introduction she wrote for an English-language edition of his novel Ninety-Three, Rand called him "the greatest novelist in world literature".[134]
Although Rand disliked most Russian literature, her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the
Rand's experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced the portrayal of her villains. Beyond We the Living, which is set in Russia, this influence can be seen in the ideas and rhetoric of Ellsworth Toohey in The Fountainhead,[139] and in the destruction of the economy in Atlas Shrugged.[140][141]
Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios. They often follow common film editing conventions, such as having a broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close-up details, and her descriptions of women characters often take a "male gaze" perspective.[142]
Contemporary reviews
The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th. Reviews of the Broadway production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.[143] Although Rand believed that We the Living was not widely reviewed, over 200 publications published approximately 125 different reviews. Overall, they were more positive than those she received for her later work.[144] Anthem received little review attention, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.[145]
Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead, received far fewer reviews than We the Living, and reviewers' opinions were mixed.[146] Lorine Pruette's positive review in The New York Times, which called the author "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly",[147] was one that Rand greatly appreciated.[148] There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications.[146] Some negative reviews said the novel was too long;[4] others called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".[146]
Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative.[4][149] Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications,[149] but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", with reviews including comments that it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".[4] Whittaker Chambers wrote what was later called the novel's most "notorious" review[150][151] for the conservative magazine National Review. He accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets), claiming, "From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged, a voice can be heard ... commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!'".[152][l]
Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, For the New Intellectual, was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged.[155] Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",[156] and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".[157] These reviews set the pattern for reaction to her ideas among liberal critics.[158] Her subsequent books got progressively less review attention.[155]
Academic assessments of Rand's fiction
Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was limited. Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.
Philosophy
Objectivist movement |
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Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".
Metaphysics and epistemology
In metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.[168] Rand believed in free will as a form of agent causation and rejected determinism.[169]
In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments".[170] According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.[171] As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature. In works such as The Romantic Manifesto and The Art of Fiction, she described Romanticism the approach that most accurately reflects the existence of human free will.[172]
In epistemology, Rand considered all knowledge to be based on forming higher levels of understanding from sense perception, the validity of which she considered
Commentators, including Hazel Barnes, Nathaniel Branden, and Albert Ellis, have criticized Rand's focus on the importance of reason. Barnes and Ellis said Rand was too dismissive of emotion and failed to recognize its importance in human life. Branden said Rand's emphasis on reason led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be.[179]
Ethics and politics
In ethics, Rand argued for
Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy.[184] Several authors, including Robert Nozick and William F. O'Neill in two of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas,[185] said she failed in her attempt to solve the is–ought problem.[186] Critics have called her definitions of egoism and altruism biased and inconsistent with normal usage.[187] Critics from religious traditions oppose her atheism and her rejection of altruism.[188]
Rand's political philosophy emphasized
Several critics, including Nozick, have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails.[198] Others, like libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer, have gone further, saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions.[199] Some critics, like Roy Childs, have said that her opposition to the initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism, rather than limited government.[200][201]
Relationship to other philosophers
Except for Aristotle,
In an article for the
Rand considered Immanuel Kant her philosophical opposite and "the most evil man in mankind's history";[219] she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest.[220] Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.[221][222] She was also critical of Plato and viewed his differences with Aristotle on questions of metaphysics and epistemology as the primary conflict in the history of philosophy.[223]
Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly antagonistic. She was not an academic and did not participate in academic discourse.[224][225] She was dismissive of critics and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without in-depth analysis.[225][226] Academic philosophers in turn viewed her negatively and dismissed her as an unimportant figure who should not be considered a philosopher or given any serious response.[3][227][228]
Early academic reaction
During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars.
After her death, interest in Rand's ideas increased gradually.[234][235] The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand, a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen, was the first academic book about Rand's ideas published after her death.[236] In one essay, political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought".[237] In 1987, the Ayn Rand Society was founded as an affiliate of the American Philosophical Association.[238]
In a 1995 entry about Rand in Contemporary Women Philosophers, Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed Rand. She said that Rand's philosophy "is regularly omitted from academic philosophy. Yet, throughout literary academia, Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher."
21st-century academic reaction
In 2009, historian Jennifer Burns identified "an explosion of scholarship" about Rand since 2000,[241] although as of that year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area.[242] From 2002 to 2012, over 60 colleges and universities accepted grants from the charitable foundation of BB&T that required teaching Rand's ideas or works; in some cases, the grants were controversial or even rejected because of the requirement to teach about Rand.[243][244]
In a 2010 essay for the
In 2020, media critic Eric Burns said, "Rand is surely the most engaging philosopher of my lifetime",[249] but "nobody in the academe pays any attention to her, neither as an author nor a philosopher".[250] That same year, the editor of a collection of critical essays about Rand said academics who disapproved of her ideas had long held "a stubborn resolve to ignore or ridicule" her work,[251] but he believed more were engaging with her work in recent years.[5]
Legacy
Popular interest
With over 37 million copies sold as of 2020[update], Rand's books continue to be read widely.
Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, like Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith; she has influenced later writers like Erika Holzer, Terry Goodkind,[257] and comic book artist Steve Ditko.[258] Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.[259] Businessmen such as John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas.[260][261]
Television shows, movies, songs, and video games have referred to Rand and her works.
Rand's works, most commonly Anthem or The Fountainhead, are sometimes assigned as secondary school reading.[272] Since 2002, the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand's novels to teachers who promise to include the books in their curriculum.[273] The Institute had distributed 4.5 million copies in the U.S. and Canada by the end of 2020.[253] In 2017, Rand was added to the required reading list for the A Level Politics exam in the United Kingdom.[274]
Political influence
Part of a series on |
Capitalism |
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Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian",
The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party),
The
Objectivist movement
After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute, the Objectivist movement continued in other forms. In the 1970s, Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism.
In 1985, Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society.[303][304] In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.[305]
Selected works
Fiction and drama:
- Night of January 16th (performed 1934, published 1968)
- We the Living (1936, revised 1959)
- Anthem (1938, revised 1946)
- The Unconquered (performed 1940, published 2014)
- The Fountainhead (1943)
- Atlas Shrugged (1957)
- The Early Ayn Rand (1984)
- Ideal (2015)
Non-fiction:
- Pola Negri (1925)
- For the New Intellectual (1961)
- The Virtue of Selfishness (1964)
- Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966, expanded 1967)
- The Romantic Manifesto (1969, expanded 1975)
- The New Left (1971, expanded 1975)
- Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1979, expanded 1990)
- Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982)
- Letters of Ayn Rand (1995)
- Journals of Ayn Rand (1997)
Notes
- ^ Rand's initial citizenship was in the Russian Empire and continued through the Russian Republic and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which became part of the Soviet Union.
- ^ a b Rand's husband, Charles Francis O'Connor (1897–1979),[1] is not to be confused with the actor and director Frank O'Connor (1881–1959) or the writer whose pen name was Frank O'Connor.
- transliterate her given name as either Alisa or Alissa.[2]
- ^ The city was renamed Petrograd from the Germanic Saint Petersburg in 1914 because Russia was at war with Germany. In 1924 it was renamed Leningrad. The name Saint Petersburg was restored in 1991.[11]
- ^ Rand's immigration papers anglicized her given name as Alice,[27] so her legal married name became Alice O'Connor, but she did not use that name publicly or with friends.[33][34]
- ^ It was later published in The Early Ayn Rand along with other screenplays, plays, and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime.[38]
- ^ In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.[40][41]
- ^ Rand later wrote that We the Living "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. ... The plot is invented, the background is not ...".[43]
- ^ In 1942, the novel was adapted without Rand's permission into a pair of Italian films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira. After Rand's post-war legal claims over the piracy were settled, her attorney purchased the negatives. The films were re-edited with Rand's approval and released as We the Living in 1986.[47]
- ^ Their friendship ended in 1948 after Paterson made what Rand considered rude comments to valued political allies.[59][60]
- ^ Although she was previously friendly with National Review editor William F. Buckley Jr., Rand cut off all contact with him after the review was published.[153] Historian Jennifer Burns describes the review as a break between Buckley's religious conservatism and non-religious libertarianism.[154]
- ^ These include Twayne's United States Authors (Ayn Rand by James T. Baker), Twayne's Masterwork Studies (The Fountainhead: An American Novel by Den Uyl and Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind by Gladstein), and Re-reading the Canon (Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand, edited by Gladstein and Sciabarra).[162]
- ^ This total includes 4.5 million copies purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute (ARI).[253]
References
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 65.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 121.
- ^ a b c d e f g Badhwar & Long 2020.
- ^ a b c d Gladstein 1999, pp. 117–119.
- ^ a b Cocks 2020, p. 15.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. xiii.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 31.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 35.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 36.
- ^ Ioffe 2022.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 86–87.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 15.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 72.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 47.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 24.
- ^ Sciabarra 1999, p. 1.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 33.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 9.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 7.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 55.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 19, 301.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 55–57.
- ^ Milgram, Shoshana. "The Life of Ayn Rand: Writing, Reading, and Related Life Events". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 39.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Heller 2009, p. 53.
- ^ Hicks.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 57–60.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 34–36.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 39.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 71.
- ^ Milgram, Shoshana. "The Life of Ayn Rand: Writing, Reading, and Related Life Events". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 24.
- ^ Branden 1986, p. 72.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 96–98.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 43–44, 52.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 40, 42.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 22.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 76, 92.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 78.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 87.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 82.
- ^ Rand 1995, p. xviii.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 13.
- ^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, p. 141.
- ^ Britting, Jeff. "Adapting We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, p. 164.
- ^ Britting, Jeff. "Adapting We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, pp. 167–176.
- ^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, p. 143.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 98.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 50.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 102.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Anthem". In Mayhew 2005a, pp. 24–27.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 57.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 114.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 249.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 75–78.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 61–78.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 58–61.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 85.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 89.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 178.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Doherty 2007, p. 149.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 68–71.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 100–101, 123.
- ^ Mayhew 2005b, pp. 91–93, 188–189.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 125.
- ^ Mayhew 2005b, p. 83.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 71.
- ^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Anthem". In Mayhew 2005a, p. 26.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 91.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 240–243.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 256–259.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 157.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 106.
- ^ Mayhew 2005b, p. 78.
- ^ Salmieri, Gregory. "Atlas Shrugged on the Role of the Mind in Man's Existence". In Mayhew 2009, p. 248.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 54.
- ^ Stolyarov II, G. "The Role and Essence of John Galt's Speech in Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged". In Younkins 2007, p. 99.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 2.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 303–306.
- ^ Younkins 2007, p. 1.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 321.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 303.
- ^ Doherty 2007, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 329.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 235.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Doherty 2007, p. 235.
- ^ Branden 1986, pp. 315–316.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 14.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 16.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 320–321.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 228–229, 265.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 352.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, p. 202 n114.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 266.
- ^ Thompson, Stephen. "Topographies of Liberal Thought: Rand and Arendt and Race". In Cocks 2020, p. 237.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 362, 519.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 204–206.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 322–323.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 405.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 360–361.
- ^ Britting 2004, p. 101.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 374–375.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 378–379.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 276.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 398–400.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 391–393.
- ^ McConnell 2010, pp. 520–521.
- ^ Weiss 2012, p. 62.
- ^ Branden 1986, pp. 392–395.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 406.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 410.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 20.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 400.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 179.
- ^ Britting, Jeff. "Adapting The Fountainhead to Film". In Mayhew 2006, p. 96.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 26.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 27.
- ^ Baker 1987, pp. 99–105.
- ^ Torres & Kamhi 2000, p. 64.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 64.
- ^ Duggan 2019, p. 44.
- ^ Wilt, Judith. "The Romances of Ayn Rand". In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Britting 2004, pp. 17, 22.
- ^ Torres & Kamhi 2000, p. 59.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Grigorovskaya 2018, pp. 315–325.
- ^ Kizilov 2021, p. 106.
- ^ Weiner 2020, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Johnson 2000, pp. 47–67.
- ^ Rosenthal 2004, pp. 220–223.
- ^ Kizilov 2021, p. 109.
- ^ Rosenthal 2004, pp. 200–206.
- ^ Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. "Ayn Rand's Cinematic Eye". In Younkins 2007, pp. 109–111.
- ^ Branden 1986, pp. 122–124.
- ^ Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, pp. 147–151.
- ^ Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of Anthem". In Mayhew 2005a, pp. 55–60.
- ^ a b c Berliner, Michael S. "The Fountainhead Reviews". In Mayhew 2006, pp. 77–82.
- ^ Pruette 1943, p. BR7.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 152.
- ^ a b Berliner, Michael S. "The Atlas Shrugged Reviews". In Mayhew 2009, pp. 133–137.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 174.
- ^ Doherty 2007, p. 659 n4.
- ^ Chambers 1957, p. 596.
- ^ Heller 2009, pp. 285–286.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 175.
- ^ a b Gladstein 1999, p. 119.
- ^ Hook 1961, p. 28.
- ^ Vidal 1962, p. 234.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 373–374, 379–381.
- ^ Gladstein 2003, p. 375.
- ^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 384–391.
- ^ Sciabarra 2003, p. 43.
- ^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 382–389.
- ^ Lewis 2001.
- ^ Duggan 2019, p. 4.
- ^ Rand 1992, pp. 1170–1171.
- ^ Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 2.
- ^ Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism". In Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 3–20.
- ^ Rheins, Jason G. "Objectivist Metaphysics: The Primacy of Existence". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 260.
- ^ Torres & Kamhi 2000, p. 26.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 191–192.
- ^ Gotthelf 2000, p. 93.
- ^ Gotthelf 2000, p. 54.
- ^ Salmieri, Gregory. "The Objectivist Epistemology". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 283.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 403 n20.
- ^ Salmieri & Gotthelf 2005, p. 1997.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Salmieri, Gregory. "The Objectivist Epistemology". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, pp. 271–272.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 173–176.
- ^ Wright, Darryl. "'A Human Society': Rand's Social Philosophy". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 163.
- ^ a b Kukathas 1998, p. 55.
- ^ Gotthelf 2000, p. 91.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 252.
- ^ Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 165.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, pp. 100, 115.
- ^ a b Sciabarra 2013, p. 224.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 220.
- ^ Baker 1987, pp. 140–142.
- ^ Gotthelf 2000, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Lewis, John David & Salmieri, Gregory. "A Philosopher on Her Times: Ayn Rand's Political and Cultural Commentary". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 353.
- ^ Ghate, Onkar. "'A Free Mind and a Free Market Are Corollaries': Rand's Philosophical Perspective on Capitalism". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 233.
- ^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 367–368.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 174–177, 209, 230–231.
- ^ Doherty 2007, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 268–269.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 261–262.
- ^ Miller, Fred D., Jr. & Mossoff, Adam. "Ayn Rand's Theory of Rights: An Exposition and Response to Critics". In Salmieri & Mayhew 2019, pp. 135–142
- ^ Miller, Fred D., Jr. & Mossoff, Adam. "Ayn Rand's Theory of Rights: An Exposition and Response to Critics". In Salmieri & Mayhew 2019, pp. 146–148
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 260, 442 n33.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 116.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 111.
- ^ O'Neill 1977, pp. 18–20.
- ^ a b Sciabarra 2013, p. 11.
- ^ Podritske & Schwartz 2009, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Murray 2010.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 16, 22.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 94–99.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Loiret-Prunet, Valerie. "Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis: Rereading We the Living". In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 97.
- ^ Sheaffer, Robert. "Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia". In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 313.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 42.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 41, 68.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 303–304.
- ^ Weinacht 2021, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Offord 2022, p. 40.
- ^ Weinacht 2021, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Offord 2022, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Rand 1971, p. 4.
- ^ Salmieri, Gregory. "An Introduction to the Study of Ayn Rand". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 14.
- ^ Hill 2001, p. 195.
- ^ Register 2004, p. 155.
- ^ Lennox, James G. "'Who Sets the Tone for a Culture?' Ayn Rand's Approach to the History of Philosophy". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 325.
- ^ Machan 2000, p. 121.
- ^ a b Brühwiler 2021, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Machan 2000, p. 147.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, p. 27.
- ^ a b Cleary 2018.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 188, 325.
- ^ O'Neill 1977, p. 3.
- ^ a b Gladstein 1999, p. 115.
- ^ Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1978, p. 203.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 114–122.
- ^ Salmieri & Gotthelf 2005, p. 1995.
- ^ a b Gladstein 1999, p. 101.
- ^ Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle". In Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 96.
- ^ Gotthelf 2000, pp. 2, 25.
- ^ Heyl 1995, p. 223.
- ^ Sciabarra 2012, p. 184.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 295–296.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 116.
- ^ Flaherty 2015.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Huemer 2010.
- ^ Sciabarra 2012, p. 183.
- ^ Seddon 2014, p. 75.
- ^ Murnane 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Burns 2020, p. 261.
- ^ Burns 2020, p. 259.
- ^ Cocks 2020, p. 11.
- ^ a b Offord 2022, p. 12.
- ^ a b "Ayn Rand Institute Annual Report 2020". Ayn Rand Institute. December 20, 2020. p. 17 – via Issuu.
- ^ a b Doherty 2007, p. 11.
- ^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 384–386.
- ^ Murnane 2018, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Riggenbach 2004, pp. 91–144.
- ^ Sciabarra 2004, pp. 8–11.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 168–171.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 298.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. 412.
- ^ Sciabarra 2004, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 282.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 110–111.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 98.
- ^ Sciabarra 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, pp. 15–22.
- ^ Chadwick & Gillespie 2005, at 1:55.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 128.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 122.
- ^ Wozniak 2001, p. 380.
- ^ Salmieri, Gregory. "An Introduction to the Study of Ayn Rand". In Gotthelf & Salmieri 2016, p. 4.
- ^ Duffy 2012.
- ^ Wang 2017.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 258.
- ^ Weiss 2012, p. 55.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 107–108, 124.
- ^ Burns 2015, p. 746.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, p. 88.
- ^ Branden 1986, p. 414.
- ^ Koppelman 2022, p. 17.
- ^ a b Doherty 2009, p. 54.
- ^ Weiss 2012, p. 155.
- ^ Burns 2004, pp. 139, 243.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 279.
- ^ Heller 2009, p. xii.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, p. 184.
- ^ a b Burns 2009, p. 283.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, pp. 174–184.
- ^ Rudoren 2015.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 283–284.
- ^ Doherty 2009, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 125.
- ^ Duggan 2019, p. xiv.
- ^ Brühwiler 2021, p. 146.
- ^ Weiner 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Duggan 2019, p. xiii.
- ^ Sunstein 2021, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 249.
- ^ Sciabarra 2013, p. 402 n5.
- ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 79.
- ^ Burns 2009, pp. 280–281.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, pp. 19, 114.
- ^ Gladstein 2010, p. 117.
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External links
- Works by Ayn Rand at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Ayn Rand at Internet Archive
- Works by Ayn Rand at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Ayn Rand at Open Library
- Rand's papers at The Library of Congress
- Ayn Rand Lexicon – searchable database
- Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute
- "Writings of Ayn Rand" – from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
- Ayn Rand at Curlie
- Ayn Rand at IMDb