Muhammad Ayub Khan
Chief of General Staff See list
| |
---|---|
Preceded by | Iskander Mirza |
Preceded by | Feroz Khan Noon |
Succeeded by | Nurul Amin (1971) |
Personal details | |
Born | Dacca | 14 May 1907
Battles/wars | Wars as a Soldier:-
Wars after Becoming Martial administrator:- |
Muhammad Ayub Khan[c] (14 May 1907 – 19 April 1974), widely known as Ayub Khan was a Pakistani army officer who served as the second president of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969. He previously served as the third Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army from 1951 to 1958.
Born in the
As president, Khan controversially appointed Gen.
Khan remains the country's longest-serving president and second-longest serving
Early life and education
Ayub Khan was born on 14 May 1907 in
He was the first child of the second wife of
He went on to study at Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) and[12] while pursuing his college education, he was accepted into the Royal Military College at Sandhurst on the recommendation of General Sir Andrew Skeen; he did not complete his degree at AMU and departed for Great Britain.[13] Ayub Khan was fluent in Urdu, Pashto, English, and his regional Hindko dialect.[14]
Military service
British India
Ayub Khan was admitted to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1926.
He was promoted to lieutenant on 2 May 1930 and to
In 1946, he was posted back to British India and was stationed in the
Early career in Pakistan
When the United Kingdom
In the early part of 1948, he was given the command of the 14th Infantry Division in the rank of acting major-general stationed in
Commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army
General
Initially, General Iftikhar Khan (commissioned in 1929) was selected for appointment as the first native commander-in-chief of the army, but he died in an airplane crash en route to take command after finishing the senior
Defence Secretary
In 1953, Ayub visited Turkey, his first foreign visit as an army commander in chief, and was said to have been impressed with
Cabinet and Defence Minister
On 24 February 1954, Ayub signed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) pact for Pakistan and his role in national politics, along with that of Defense Minister Mirza, began to grow[39]
In 1954, Prime Minister
The controversial
In 1955, Prime Minister Bogra was dismissed by Governor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad and he was succeeded by the new Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali as the Defence Minister.[45]
After the
Around this time the
He reportedly complained about Admiral HMS Choudri to President Mirza and criticized Admiral Choudri for "neither having the brain, imagination, or depth of thought to understand such (defence) problems nor the vision or the ability to make any contribution".[51] The impasse was broken with Admiral Choudhri resigning from the navy in protest as a result of having differences with the navy's plans of expansion and modernization.[52][53]
Presidency (1958–1969)
1958 military coup
Suhrawardy and Feroz began campaigning to become prime minister and president in the upcoming general elections. Also, the conservative Pakistan Muslim League, led by its President A.Q. Khan, was threatening to engage in civil disobedience.[54] These events were against President Mirza hence he was willing to dissolve even Pakistan's One Unit for his advantage.[30]
On 7 October 1958, President Mirza abrogated the Constitution after sending a letter to Prime Minister Feroz announcing the
Ayub justified his part by declaring that: "History would never have forgiven us if the present chaotic conditions were allowed to go on any further," and his goal was to restore a democracy that the "people can understand and work", not to rule indefinitely.[57] When the public was informed, public reactions were mixed. The immediate crackdown on smuggling, corruption, and trafficking won Ayub plenty of support from the commoners. The middle-class and the upper-middle class were more apprehensive.
President Mirza himself was apprehensive, though for a different reason. He had been contemplating replacing Ayub Khan, and it seems that Ayub knew. Immediately after the Supreme Court's Chief
The regime came to power with the intent of instituting widespread reform. Like Mirza, Ayub advocated for greater centralization of power, and his ruling style was more American than British. He "vowed to give people access to speedier justice, curb the crippling birth rate, and take appropriate steps, including land reforms and technological innovation, to develop agriculture so that the country could feed itself".[57]
Ayub finally "restored civil administration", although he maintained the Presidency and relied on an intricate web of spy agencies to maintain supremacy over the bureaucracy, including calling upon civilian intelligence agencies.
In 1960, a referendum, that functioned as the
Constitutional and legal reforms
A constitutional commission was set-up under the
The new constitution respected
In 1961, he promulgated the "Muslim Family Law Ordinance".[64] Through this ordinance, unmitigated polygamy was abolished. Consent of the current wife was made mandatory for a second marriage, and brakes were placed on the practice of instant divorce under Islamic tradition, where men could divorce women by saying:"I divorce you" three times.
The Arbitration Councils were set up under the law in the urban and rural areas to deal with cases of: (a) grant of sanction to a person to contract a second marriage during the subsistence of a marriage; (b) reconciliation of a dispute between a husband and a wife; (c) grant of a maintenance allowance to the wife and children.[65]
Economy and infrastructure
Industrialization and rural development through constructing modern
Several hydroelectric projects were completed, including the Mangla Dam (one of the world's largest dams), several small dams and water reservoirs in West Pakistan, and one dam in East Pakistan, the Kaptai Dam. President Ayub authorized planning of nuclear power plants.[70] Dr. Abdus Salam. supported by the President, personally approved the project in Karachi while the project in East Pakistan never materialized.[71]
Extensive education reforms were supposedly carried out and 'scientific development efforts' were also supposedly made during his years. These policies could not be sustained after 1965, when the economy collapsed and led to economic declines which he was unable to control.[72][73]
Ayub introduced new curricula and textbooks for universities and schools. Many public-sector universities and schools were built during his era.
Defence spending
During the Ayub era, the navy was able to introduce submarines and slowly modified itself by acquiring warships.
Ayub prioritized
Ayub Khan filled more and more civil administrative positions with army officers, increasing the military's influence over the bureaucracy. He expanded the size of the army by more than half from the early 1960s to 1969, and maintained a high level of military spending as a percentage of GDP during that period, peaking in the immediate aftermath of the
Foreign policy
U.S. alliance and 1960 U-2 incident
The main feature of Ayub Khan's foreign policy was prioritized
The
Soviet Secretary General Nikita Khrushchev threatened to bomb Peshawar if the United States continued to operate aircraft from there against the Soviet Union. Ayub Khan apologised for the incident when he visited the Soviet Union five years later.[83]
President Ayub directed his
In 1963, Ayub signed the historic
During 1961–65, Ayub lost much of his support from President
In 1961–62, Ayub paid a state visit to the United Kingdom. He attracted much attention from the
India: 1959 joint defence and 1965 war
In 1959, Ayub Khan's interest in building defence forces had already diminished when he made an offer of joint defense with India during the Sino-Indo clashes in October 1959 in Ladakh, in a move seen as a result of American pressure and a lack of understanding of foreign affairs[91] Upon hearing this proposal, India's Prime Minister Nehru reportedly countered, "Defence Minister Ayub: Joint Defence on what?"[87]: 84–86 India remained uninterested in such proposals and Prime Minister Nehru decided to push his country's role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[92] In 1960, President Ayub, together with Prime Minister Nehru, signed the Indus Waters Treaty brokered by the World Bank.[93] In 1962, after India was defeated by China, Ayub Khan disguised a few thousand soldiers as guerillas and sent them to Indian Kashmir to incite the people to rebel.[94] In 1964, the Pakistan Army engaged with the Indian Army in several skirmishes, and clandestine operations began.
The war with India in 1965 was a turning point in his presidency, and it ended in a settlement reached by Ayub Khan at Tashkent, called the
According to
His
About the 1965 war's contingency plans, AM Nur Khan briefly wrote that "Rumours about an impending operation were rife but the army had not shared the plans with other forces."[99]
Ayub Khan's main sponsor, the United States, did not welcome the move and the Johnson administration placed an economic embargo that caused Pakistan to lose US$500 million in aid and grants that had been received through consortium.[96] Ayub Khan could not politically survive in the aftermath of the 1965 war with India and fell from the presidency after surrendering presidential power to Army Commander General Yahya in 1969.
Afghanistan: Afghanistan-Pakistan Confederation Plan
In the 1950s, partly due to the complicated bilateral relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan over the Durand Line dispute, Ayub Khan along with the Royal family of Afghanistan under King Zahir Shah proposed the Afghanistan-Pakistan Confederation Plan to merge Afghanistan with Pakistan under a single confederation.[100] This merger was proposed on the basis of mutual distrust and fears of security threats by the Indian government and the Soviets, which wasn't able to amount to fruition due to the eventual Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the formation of a new communist Afghan regime.[101]
Presidential election of 1965
In 1964, President Ayub Khan was confident in his apparent popularity and saw the deep divisions within the political opposition which ultimately led him to announce presidential elections in 1965. He earned the nomination of the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) and was shocked when Fatima Jinnah was nominated by the Combined Opposition Parties.[102]
Ayub Khan's son,
It was reported that the elections were widely
1969 protests and resignation
The controversial victory over Fatima Jinnah in the 1965 presidential election and the outcome of the war with India in the same year brought devastating results for Ayub Khan's image and his presidency. Khan's foreign minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto believed the Tashkent Declaration was a "political surrender" which turned a military victory into defeat.[106] Bhutto began criticizing Ayub Khan openly and resigned in June 1966. In Karachi, public resentment towards Ayub had been rising since the 1965 elections and his policies were widely disapproved.[107]
In 1967, Bhutto formed the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and embarked on a nationwide tour where he attacked the Ayub administration's economic, religious, and social policies. Bhutto was arrested for these activities.[108] His detention further inflamed the opposition and demonstrations were sparked all over the country. The East Pakistani Awami League charged the Ayub administration with discriminatory policies towards the East. Labour unions called for strikes against Ayub Khan's administration, and dissatisfaction was widespread in the country's middle class by the end of 1968. When Ayub Khan was confronted with the Six point movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and with the criticism by Bhutto's PPP, he responded by imprisoning both leaders but that made matters worse for Ayub's administration.[109]
In 1968, he survived an assassination attempt while visiting
In 1969, Ayub Khan opened negotiations with the opposition parties in what was termed as a "
The PPP also led very strong protests, street demonstrations, and riots against the Ayub Khan's administration when the prices of food consumer products such as sugar, tea, and wheat, hiked up. Disapproval of Ayub Khan was widely expressed by chanted slogans and insults referring to him.
Elements in the
Death and legacy
Last years
Ayub Khan did not comment on the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. He died of a heart attack on 19 April 1974 at his villa near Islamabad.[117][118][119]
Foreign policy
Ayub Khan's presidency allied Pakistan with the American-led
Diary
Ayub Khan began his diary in September 1966, and ended his record in October 1972, because of his failing health. The diary covers events such as his resignation from office, the assumption of power by Yahya Khan, the independence of Bangladesh, and the replacement of Yahya by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. After his death in 1972, the diary was not released to the public for thirty years due to opinions which would have been detrimental to the reputation of powerful individuals at the time. Ayub Khan wanted his diary to be edited by his close associate Altaf Gauhar, but after Ayub Khan's death the six-year-long diary was entrusted to Oxford University Press (OUP) to edit and publish. At OUP, Diaries of Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, 1966-1972 was edited and annotated by American historian Craig Baxter.[122]
Development projects
The federal capital was relocated under the Ayub administration from the port city of Karachi to the new and carefully planned city of Islamabad in the mountains. Facilitated by the World Bank, the Ayub administration became a party to the Indus Waters Treaty with archrival India to resolve disputes regarding the sharing of the waters of the six rivers in the
Modernization of agriculture and industrialization
He subsidized fertilizers and modernized agriculture through irrigation development and spurred industrial growth with liberal tax benefits.
Global policy
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a
Criticisms
Despotism, nepotism and corruption
After 1965, the
Gohar Ayub Khan also faced criticisms during that time on questions of family corruption and cronyism through his business links with his father-in-law, retired Lieutenant General Habibullah Khan Khattak. One Western commentator in 1969 estimated Gohar Ayub's personal wealth at the time at $4 million, while his family's wealth was put in the range of $10–20 million.[133] Public criticism of Gohar's personal wealth and that of the President increased. All these criticisms harmed President Ayub Khan's image
Mishandling of East Pakistan
He is also blamed for not doing enough to tackle the significant economic disparity between East and West Pakistan. Whilst he was aware of the acute grievances of East Pakistan, he did try to address the situation. However, the Ayub Khan regime was so highly centralized that, in the absence of democratic institutions, densely populated and politicized East Pakistan province continued to feel it was being slighted.[134]
During his presidency, differences between West and East Pakistan arose to an enormous degree, that ultimately led to the independence of Bangladesh following the Bangladesh Liberation War.
Islamization
Historian Yasmin Saikia argues that the Islamization that is often blamed on Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq has its roots in the policies of Ayub Khan, who injected a "jihadi" rhetoric into the Pakistan Army, his re-writing of Pakistan's history from a purely Islamic lenses and his categorization of Bengali Muslims as being too influenced by Hinduism.[135]
Family
After his death, his descendants became active in
His son Shaukat was a successful businessman and had four children: three sons and one daughter. All three sons went into business and politics, with Akbar, Arshad, and Yousaf Ayub Khan becoming successful members of the provincial and national assemblies.[30]
His grandson,
Awards and decorations
Nishan-e-Pakistan
(Order of Pakistan) |
|||
Hilal-e-Jurat
(Crescent of Courage) |
Hilal-e-Pakistan
(HPk) |
Pakistan Tamgha
1947 |
Tamgha-e-Jamhuria
(Republic Commemoration Medal) 1956 |
Member of the | The Legion of Merit
(US) |
India General Service Medal | 1939-1945 Star
|
Burma Star | War Medal | India Service Medal | Queen Elizabeth II
(1953) |
Foreign Decorations
Foreign Awards | ||
---|---|---|
UK | Order of St Michael and St George | |
UK | Member of the British Empire (MBE) | |
US | The Legion of Merit (Degree of Chief Commander) | |
UK | India General Service Medal (1936) | |
UK | 1939-1945 Star
|
|
UK | Burma Star | |
UK | War Medal 1939-1945
|
|
UK | India Service Medal 1939–1945 | |
UK | Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal | |
THA | Knight Grand Commander of the Order of Rama | |
YUG | Order of the Yugoslav Great Star[137]
|
Honours
National honours
- Pakistan:
- Recipient of the Nishan-e-Pakistan (NPk)
- Recipient of the Hilal-e-Jurat (HJ)
- Recipient of the Hilal-e-Pakistan (HPk)
Commonwealth honours
- British India:
- Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)
- United Kingdom:
- Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) (1961)
- Malaya:
- Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (D.M.N.(K)) (1962)[138]
Books
Among the books Khan authored or which were based on his speeches, talks and other output, are:[139]
Authored
- Friends Not Masters: A Political Autobiography, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1967.
- Ideology and Objectives, Rawalpindi: Ferozesons, 1968.
- Agricultural Revolution in Pakistan, Karachi: Rana Tractors & Equipment, 1968.
Edited by others
- Diaries of Field Marshall Mohammad Ayub Khan, 1966-1972, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2007. Edited by Craig Baxter.
- Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan: A Selection of Talks and Interviews, 1964-1967, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2010. Edited by Nadia Ghani.
See also
- Cold War
- Ayub National Park
- Ayub Medical College
- Americanism
- American cultural influence in Pakistan
Notes
Footnotes
- ^ Ayub retired from active service in 1958; however, he made himself field marshal in 1959. See "Military Ruler Gets Himself Elevated", Dawn, 27 October 1959
Dawn October 27, 1959 (News Report)
President Ayub made Field Marshal
General Mohammad Ayub Khan was conferred the rank of Field Marshal by the presidential cabinet. The communique said that the conferment of this rank will serve to demonstrate to the world in a humble way the high esteem in which he is held by his people and how grateful the nation is to its saviour. The rank of Field Marshal is the highest rank of armies built on the patron of the British Army. The press communique added that by a peaceful revolution last year the President had not only defended the territorial integrity of Pakistan but had also saved the very existence of the nation.[3]
- ^ Ayub never had an active regular military appointment of the rank of field marshal, his last military appointment was the commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army in the rank of full general.
- Urdu: محمد ایوب خان
References
- ^ a b Ankit, Rakesh (January 2010), "The Defiant Douglas", Epilogue, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 46–47
- ^ Field Marshal Auchinleck with Begum Ayub Khan and Begum Shahid Hamid, 1964. Maj. Gen. Syed Ali Hamid.
- ^ "Gen. Ayub becomes President". Dawn. 6 September 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
- ^ "Of false pride and misbelief". The Tribune India. 31 August 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
- ^ "Four of 13 army chiefs were senior-most when appointed". The News International. 27 November 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
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- ^ Amir, Intikhab (23 April 2013). "Where pragmatism holds sway". Dawn. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
When it comes to Haripur's significance to the national political scene, one can't help but refer to the country's first military dictator, Field Marshal Ayub Khan. A member of the politically significant Tareen clan of Haripur, Gen Ayub's heirs are known for not shying away from changing loyalties in their pursuit for a prolonged stay in the corridors of power.
- ISBN 978-0-19-577221-0. Retrieved 3 May 2023. p.453: NOTES "13a. President Ayub is one of these Tarins."
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84331-149-2. Retrieved 5 April 2023. p. 69:
Ayub Khan, who had been army commander-in-chief since 1951, embodied this military institution better than anyone. His ethnic origin was Pashtun, he was born in the Punjab--like Ghulam Muhammad--and he believed in a centralized state dominated by the Punjab, to which he was keen to rally members of his community.
- ^ "Forming the govt : PML-N seeks Haripur tehsil triumph through bloodlines". The Express Tribune. 4 June 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ Malik 2008, p. 147.
- ISBN 9780313341373. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
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- ^ Indian Army List, 1928 Dec
- ^ "No. 33353". The London Gazette. 3 February 1928. p. 766.
- ^ "No. 33510". The London Gazette. 28 June 1929. p. 4274.
- ^ "No. 33613". The London Gazette. 6 June 1930. p. 3572.
- ^ "No. 34381". The London Gazette. 19 March 1937. p. 1827.
- ^ "No. 37085". The London Gazette. 18 May 1945. p. 2577.
- ^ See accounts of Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan The Nation that Lost its Soul: Memoirs, Lahore: Jang Publications, 1992, p 187; and Lt Col (r) HE Empson 'Hard Times- The Burmese Campaign 1942–1945' Aldershot: Gale and Polden, 1952
- ^ Nawaz 2008, p. 33.
- ^ Nawaz 2008, p. 79.
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- ISBN 978-0-674-05289-5.
The joint authority of president and commander-in-chief was untenable and did not last more than a few weeks. Even before the coup, Mirza had been conspiring to replace Ayub as commander-in-chief. By appearing to go along with the president, Ayub bought precious time. Once the Supreme Court headed by Chief Justice Munir dignified the coup as a revolutionary necessity, Ayub sprang into action to establish himself as the undisputed leader of Pakistan. With the backing of his top military commanders, he packed off Mirza to permanent exile.
- ^ a b "Martial Law Under Field Marshal Ayub Khan Provincial Assemblies were dissolved and all political activities were banned". Story Of Pakistan, Martial law. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
- ^ "America Welcomes President Ayub". Gordon Wilkison Collection. Texas Archive of the Moving Image. July 1961. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
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- ^ "Profile". Open Library. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
Bibliography
- Cloughly, Brian (2006). "Chapter 2, "Ayub Khan, Adjutant General to President"". A History of the Pakistan Army. Oxford: ISBN 978-1-57607-712-2.
- Khan, Muhammad Ayub (1966). Diaries of Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 599. ISBN 9780195474428.
- Khan, Muhammad Ayub (1967). Friends Not Masters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 290. ISBN 0192111787.
- Shah, Aqil (2014). Military and Democracy: Military Politics in Pakistan. ISBN 978-1-134-40758-3.
- ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1.
External links
- Ayub Khan Bio
- Official profile at Pakistan Army website
- Video clip of Ayub Khan in Paris----use QuickTime Player.
- Video clip of Ayub Khan with General De Gaulle
- Video clip in Rawalpindi
- "No. 42035". The London Gazette. 17 May 1960. p. 3465. Creation as an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 26 April 1960