BMT Brighton Line

Route map:
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BMT Brighton Line
600V DC third rail
Route map

Legend
Broadway Line
Sixth Avenue Line (express)
Manhattan Bridge (East River)
Sixth Avenue Line (local)
Myrtle Avenue
Fourth Avenue Line (express)
Fourth Avenue Line (local)
 DeKalb Avenue
Fulton Street & Crosstown Lines
Eastern Parkway Line
 Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center
Fourth Avenue Line
Bergen Street
 Seventh Avenue
Grand Army Plaza
Eastern Parkway Line
Franklin Avenue Line
 Prospect Park
Parkside Avenue
Church Avenue
Beverley Road
Cortelyou Road
Newkirk Plaza
Avenue H
Avenue J
Avenue M
Kings Highway
Avenue U
Neck Road
Sheepshead Bay Race Track
 Sheepshead Bay
Brighton Beach
Ocean Parkway
Culver Line
former
BMT Culver Line
connection
 West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium
Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue
West End and Sea Beach Lines
Legend
 Express station
Local station
Closed station
This diagram:

The BMT Brighton Line, also known as the Brighton Beach Line,

Brighton Beach
and runs via the bridge's north tracks.

The line first opened in 1878 as a two-track surface-level excursion

railroad called the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway, transporting riders from Downtown Brooklyn via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) to the seaside resorts at Coney Island. When its connection with the LIRR was severed in 1883, the line became the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad, which was eventually acquired by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT, later Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation [BMT]). From 1903 to 1908, all of the original line's grade crossings were eliminated; This project also widened the line from two to four tracks from Church Avenue to Sheepshead Bay; From 1918 to 1920 the portion of original open-cut right-of-way from Church Avenue to Prospect Park station was widened to four tracks and a new subway alignment was built north of the Prospect Park station. The northern part of the original line became the modern-day BMT Franklin Avenue Line
, which still runs today. In subsequent years, numerous improvements were made to the Brighton Line.

History

Origins

Route designation on BMT Triplex equipment

The Brighton Line opened from the

railroad — the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway — to bring beachgoers from downtown Brooklyn (via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road) to the seashore at Coney Island on the Atlantic Ocean, at a location named Brighton Beach
at the same time the railroad arrived. It has been known since its opening as the Brighton Beach Line but is now described as the Brighton Line in MTA literature and in public usage.

After losing its connection with the Long Island Rail Road in 1883, the railroad fell on hard times, reorganizing as the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad. Seeking a new route for its excursion business and its local trade in communities along the way, it formed an agreement with the Kings County Elevated Railway to connect to its Fulton Street Line, which gave access to the new Brooklyn Bridge and Manhattan passengers. This was accomplished in 1896.

A series of mergers and leases put the Brighton Beach Line in the hands of the

streetcar, and bus lines in Brooklyn and part of Queens
. The line was electrified with trolley wire and, for a time, trolleys from several surface routes and elevated trains operated together on the line.

The BRT was reorganized as the

City of New York, and operation passed to the city's Board of Transportation, which already operated the city-built Independent Subway System
(IND).

BMT Brighton Line was built next to right of way of LIRR. LIRR tracks were removed but the abutment placement still indicated where the right of way was

The original line was a two-tracked high-speed surface steam railroad operating from Bedford Station, at Atlantic Avenue near Franklin Avenue in the City of Brooklyn, at which point it made a physical connection to the

Village
of Flatbush. From that point the line continued on the surface to a point at current Beverley Road between Marlborough Road (East 15th Street) and East 16th Street, curving southeast and running on the surface between the lines of the latter streets through the Towns of Flatbush and Gravesend to Sheepshead Bay, then turning southerly to reach the beach at Brighton Beach on Coney Island in the Town of Gravesend.

The line was extended westward from Brighton Beach in 1903, so that it could terminate with the former Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad at Culver Depot in Coney Island. Passengers, with this short extension, were given access to the developing area of Coney Island. The Culver Depot became the center of operations for the Culver Line and the Brighton Beach Line.[3]

Grade crossing eliminations, 1903–1908 and 1918–1920

The Brighton Line passing over Coney Island Avenue in Brighton Beach

In 1903, the New York State Legislature created the Brooklyn Grade Crossing Elimination Commission (BGCEC) to eliminate all

grade crossings on the Brighton Beach Line and the Bay Ridge Line of the Long Island Rail Road. The city was supposed to cover half of the costs, not exceeding $1 million, while the railroads were to cover the other half of the costs. The work started on December 30, 1905, and was completed in 1908. A short piece of two-tracked elevated railroad was built from the ramp connecting to the Fulton Street Elevated as far as Park Place, where the original 1878 open cut began. From the end of that original cut south of Church Avenue, the line was wholly rebuilt as a four-track railroad with express and local stations to a point south of Neptune Avenue at the border of Coney Island, continuing along its original right-of-way to Brighton Beach station. The portion from Church Avenue to Avenue H was placed in a depressed open cut, while the portion from Avenue H to south of Sheepshead Bay was raised onto an earthen embankment, primarily with earth excavated from the open-cut portion and from the Bay Ridge Improvement of the Long Island Rail Road. The separation of the railroad grade allowed the line's trolley wire north of Sheepshead Bay to be replaced with ground-level third rail.[3]

The work by the BGCEC left the line between Park Place and Church Avenue in substantially its original condition from steam railroad days. Between 1918 and 1920, however, further work rebuilt the portion between Prospect Park and Church Avenue as a four-track line. At the same time, the remaining portion of the line south of Neptune Avenue was replaced with a four-track elevated structure, including a four- to six-track elevated line extension, connecting the Brighton Line to the new

Coney Island terminal at Surf and Stillwell Avenues. This same work rerouted mainline Brighton Beach trains from the Fulton Street elevated line via a new deep tunnel under Flatbush Avenue to connect to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line at DeKalb Avenue station, where trains could access the new BMT Broadway subway. This work was done as a part of the Dual Contracts
.

A spur south of Neck Road, which split to Sheepshead Bay Race Track, was in use from 1909 to around 1929. The single-track spur was part of the Long Island Rail Road's Manhattan Beach Branch, and it ran at street level to Ocean Avenue between Avenues X and Y, where it terminated at a six-track terminal.[4]: 2 

Brighton–Franklin Line

The St. Felix Street and Flatbush Avenue Connection opened on August 1, 1920, providing direct service between the Brighton Line and midtown Manhattan.[2][5] With the opening of the connection, the original portion of the line between the Fulton Street Elevated and the link to the new subway at Prospect Park became a secondary line, known as Brighton–Franklin, and now known as the BMT Franklin Avenue Line. At times through services (including expresses) operated on mainline Brighton tracks to Coney Island. Some special weekend trains even operated beyond Coney Island back to Manhattan via the BMT Sea Beach Line express tracks and the BMT Fourth Avenue Subway. This service was variously known as Franklin–Nassau and as the Coney Island Express, but its popular name was the "Sunny Sunday Summer Special," because it was only supposed to operate as needed on the hottest beach-going days.

In Fiscal Year 1930, an additional control area with staircases to the platforms at Kings Highway were constructed, and additional stairs were added at Avenue M, Avenue U, and Avenue J.[6]

Through services gradually diminished on the Brighton–Franklin, and after 1963 it became a pure shuttle, operating between Franklin Avenue station at Fulton Street and Prospect Park station, where it connects with mainline Brighton Beach trains.

During the era of route contraction from 1940 to about 1975, the

Dean Street station was closed. The entire line was under consideration for abandonment, but community pressure forced the MTA to rebuild rather than abandon the line, and as a result, most of the supporting infrastructure and stations were completely rehabilitated in 1998–1999 at a cost of $74 million and reopened in 1999.[7]

Platform extensions, track repairs, and Stillwell Avenue reconstruction

On June 16, 1964, Mayor

Stillwell Avenue. Work on the second contract was still ongoing in 1965.[8][9]

Between April 26, 1986, and October 26, 1986, service was disrupted due to track repairs and other construction work along the line. The two local tracks were completely rebuilt between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue, in two phases, with the Manhattan-bound track rebuilt first between April and July, and the Brooklyn-bound track rebuilt between July and October. A temporary platform was built at Cortelyou Road while Beverley Road and Parkside Avenue were closed in one direction because temporary platforms could not be built at these locations.[10] To reduce congestion, skip-stop service was implemented on weekdays, which lasted until 1988.[11]

From September 8, 2002, to May 23, 2004, service was suspended west of Brighton Beach due to allow rebuilding of the

Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue terminal station, which had deteriorated due to the effects of salt water corrosion and deferred maintenance.[12]

Brighton Line Station Reconstruction Project

The platform at Avenue U during reconstruction.
Track work at Newkirk Plaza in September 2011 marking the end of the station reconstruction project.
Replacing of tracks on the BMT Brighton Line

In 2007, the MTA announced that it would reconstruct seven stations between

Sheepshead Bay.[14]

On September 14, 2009, the second phase of the project involving all stations from

Cortelyou Road
, a single crossover connected the southbound local track with the express one and all southbound trains skipped Avenue H and Avenue M.

On January 18, 2010, Coney Island-bound service was restored at Avenue U and Neck Road. The Manhattan-bound platforms were closed for rebuilding until October 25 and all northbound trains operated on the express track from Sheepshead Bay to Kings Highway.

On September 13, Coney Island-bound service to Avenue H and Avenue M was restored and the two southbound tracks south of Cortelyou Road were separated. Over the next two weeks, the temporary platforms at Avenue J and Kings Highway were moved to the southbound express track and the two northbound tracks were connected to each other north of Newkirk Plaza. On September 27, the Manhattan-bound platforms of those three stations as well as Avenues H and M, which were then being bypassed, began rehabilitation and all northbound service was directed to the express track until Cortelyou Road. The platforms of all stations reopened on September 12, 2011, and B express service was restored on October 3. However, rehabilitation work that did not affect service continued until the end of the year.

As part of the project, station platforms were replaced and widened, windscreens and canopies were replaced, station lighting was upgraded, new public address systems were installed, and new station agent booths were put into place. In addition, ADA-compliant elevators were installed at Kings Highway, the historic station house at Avenue H was restored, an additional southbound entrance was installed at Avenue H, and additional fare entrances were created to the northbound platform sections of the Avenue M and Avenue J stations.[16]

Service patterns

The following services use part or all of the Brighton Line:[17]

  Service Section of line
Weekdays Weekends Late Nights
"B" train express no service north of
Brighton Beach
"Q" train local entire line

Since 1920, the primary service on the line has been through to Manhattan rather than over the tracks now used by the

1
.

Standard local service ran through the

QB
local via bridge.

The

QJ, running through the tunnel to the BMT Nassau Street Line
, which also replaced the limited rush hour Brighton “Bankers’ Specials” to Nassau Street. The only Brighton-Broadway service was a new QB, with a limited number of runs in the peak direction at rush hours on the local Brighton and express Broadway tracks. There were also a limited number of NX trains from Brighton Beach via Coney Island and the Sea Beach express tracks, then up Broadway, a short-lived service that also attempted to compensate for the elimination of major Brighton/Broadway service. (The two QB services were distinct; the old QB had run at non-peak times; this new QB had the same name and almost the same route but was a different service.)

The QJ's Brighton section was replaced with an extension of the

Manhattan Bridge subway tracks began, which would continue until 2004. Though the same general service patterns remained on the Brighton Line, all trains were sent over the bridge and onto the Broadway or Sixth Avenue Line, depending on which set of tracks was open. From 1986 to 1988, the south side (Broadway) was in service, and the D continued to serve the line at all times, the M was rerouted onto the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and Q service now also ran during middays. Because of the concurrent track and infrastructure repairs on the Brighton Line, express service was suspended for two years. As tracks between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue were rebuilt, the D and Q provided skip-stop service between Newkirk Avenue and Sheepshead Bay on weekdays. D trains served Neck Road, Avenue M and Avenue H; the Q skipped those stops, serving Avenue U and Avenue J, while both trains served Kings Highway.[11] By 1987, as the line's reconstruction progressed, the weekday skip-stop pattern expanded to Prospect Park, with D trains serving Beverley Road while Q trains served Cortelyou Road and Parkside Avenue, with Church Avenue as a mutual station.[19]

On December 11, 1988, the Bridge's north (Sixth Avenue) tracks reopened; at this time, the skip-stop pattern was eliminated, and the D became a full-time local service to Stillwell Avenue, while the Q ran express on weekdays to Brighton Beach. Both trains ran via Sixth Avenue Express. From April 30 to November 12, 1995, the Manhattan Bridge fully closed during middays and weekends. D service in Brooklyn was suspended during these hours; the Q replaced it, running local to Stillwell Avenue and via the Montague Street Tunnel and Broadway Express.[20][21]

The 2001 shifting of trains back to the south side (Broadway) led to the D only running north of Midtown Manhattan; the Q replaced the D as the full-time Brighton Local while the Brighton express portion of the Q became the diamond <Q>. When both sides of the bridge reopened in 2004, the <Q> was discontinued and replaced by the B in Brooklyn. The B was restored to the Brighton Line rather than the West End Line, where it had run from 1967 to 2001, to combine two weekday-only services and because Brighton Line residents preferred Broadway Service, the Q was kept as the full-time local. In effect, this flipped the B and D services, as the D was transferred to the West End Line following the bridge's reopening.[22]

Description

double crossover
linking both express tracks located between Prospect Park and Church Avenue.

The modern-day line shows a mix of its various re-buildings.

DeKalb Avenue to Prospect Park

The underground portion from the

Seventh Avenue. Between Atlantic Avenue and Grand Army Plaza, the Brighton Line tunnel runs beside, under, and between the tracks of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s Eastern Parkway Line.[23] The Eastern Parkway Line was built simultaneously with this part of the Brighton Line, and also opened in 1920.[24]

At

open cut. The Prospect Park station contains a cross-platform interchange with the BMT Franklin Avenue Line, which is used by the S train. Franklin Avenue Line trains use the northbound local track, while the express tracks in both directions are used by the Brighton Line trains; the southbound local track is not in service.[23]
The former alignment of the Brighton Line ran along what is now the Franklin Avenue Line, which had been built as a surface railway in 1878 and rebuilt as a grade-separated open-cut and embankment line in 1905.

Prospect Park to Brighton Beach

South of Prospect Park, the Brighton Line widens to a four-track line for much of the rest of the route. The

Church Avenue
. The line features slightly sloped and capped reinforced concrete walls, as well as cut-and-cover tunnels underneath cross-streets.

The segment between Church Avenue to Avenue H is a result of the BGCEC rebuilding program of 1903–1907. Just south of the tunnel under Church Avenue, the construction of the cut wall visibly changes. Steel trestles carry the streets above the line, giving it a more open appearance. Cottage-style station houses are suspended over the line at local stations at Beverley and Cortelyou Roads, and at the express station at Newkirk Plaza. Past Newkirk Plaza the line continues in an open cut, then begins to rise to street level at the north end of Avenue H station.[23]

Sheepshead Bay station, looking northward across the express tracks

The

Sheepshead Bay (formerly Shore Road).[23]
All of the station houses for these stops are located beneath the tracks at street level.

The line continues south on the 1907 embankment to a bridge over Neptune Avenue. At this point the BGCEC roadbed ends. Prior to the Dual Contracts rebuild in the late 1910s, the line descended to the surface on two single track concrete and steel ramps to operate on the surface to

Brighton Beach
. As part of the 1918–1920 Dual Contracts work, all four tracks now continue on a steel elevated structure to the junction of Coney Island and Brighton Beach Avenues, where the line turns west onto Brighton Beach Avenue and enters the Brighton Beach station.

Brighton Beach to Coney Island

Bilevel elevated section, from West 8th Street to Stillwell Avenue-Coney Island station. Its lower level is used by IND Culver Line

Traveling west from Brighton Beach station, the line operates on a six track elevated structure over Brighton Beach Avenue. One track splits from each pair of local and express tracks in each direction. Only the outer two tracks are currently used for revenue service, carrying Q trains. The inner four are layup tracks used to store B trains that terminate at Brighton Beach; the innermost two tracks are the former right-of-way of the Sea View Railway, which originally provided service west of Brighton Beach.[23]

Crossing West 5th Street

Each of the two layup tracks between the local and express tracks ends before

Stillwell Avenue terminal, which was built in 1917–1920 and renovated in 2001–2004. The Brighton trains occupy tracks 3 and 4.[23]

Station listing

Station service legend
Stops all times Stops all times
Stops all times except late nights Stops all times except late nights
Stops late nights only Stops late nights only
Stops weekdays during the day Stops weekdays during the day
Stops rush hours only Stops rush hours only
Time period details
Disabled access Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act
Disabled access ↑ Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act
in the indicated direction only
Disabled access ↓
Elevator access to mezzanine only
Neighborhood
(approximate) 		Disabled access Station Tracks Services Opened Transfers and notes
Begins as a merge of the Montague Street Tunnel (N late nights R all times ​W limited rush hour service only),
BMT Broadway Line express tracks via the Manhattan Bridge (N all except late nights ​Q all times),
and IND Sixth Avenue Line express tracks via the Manhattan Bridge (B weekdays during the day ​D all times).
Downtown Brooklyn Disabled access DeKalb Avenue bridge, tunnel B weekdays during the day ​D late nights ​N late nights, and limited rush hour service in the reverse-peak direction ​Q all times ​R all times ​W limited rush hour service only August 1, 1920[5] 6 tracks; only four outer tracks stop at this station. Within station, outermost tracks are used by trains using the bridge, and center tracks are used by trains using the tunnel. Innermost tracks are used by BMT Fourth Avenue Line express trains from the bridge.
Split with the BMT Fourth Avenue Line (D all times ​N all times ​R all times ​W limited rush hour service only)
Disabled access Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 1, 1920[2][5] 2 all times ​3 all except late nights ​4 all times ​5 weekdays only (IRT Eastern Parkway Line)
D all times ​N all times ​R all times ​W limited rush hour service only (BMT Fourth Avenue Line)
Connection to LIRR at Atlantic Terminal
Park Slope
 Seventh Avenue all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 1, 1920[2][5]
Flatbush
 Two outer local tracks begin from merge of the BMT Franklin Avenue Line (S all times)
Disabled access Prospect Park express B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times
 April 4, 1905 S all times (BMT Franklin Avenue Line)
local S all times (northbound track) B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times
Prior to the 1920 expansion, the Brighton Line followed the current Franklin Avenue Line north of this station.
Parkside Avenue local Q all times April 4, 1905
Church Avenue all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 23, 1907 Originally called Flatbush station, or sometimes Church Lane, Flatbush.[25]
Beverley Road local Q all times August 23, 1907[26]
Cortelyou Road local Q all times August 23, 1907[26] Formerly known as Avenue C station[2]
Newkirk Plaza all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 23, 1907 Originally known as Parkville station[25]
Midwood Disabled access
Avenue H
 local Q all times August 23, 1907
Avenue J local Q all times August 23, 1907[26]
Avenue M local Q all times August 23, 1907 Originally known as South Greenfield station, and later Elm Avenue station[2]
Disabled access Kings Highway all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 23, 1907
B82 Select Bus Service
Originally described as at Kings Highway, near the Prospect Park Fair Grounds[25]
Homecrest Avenue U local Q all times August 23, 1907[26] Originally known as Gravesend station
Neck Road local Q all times August 23, 1907 Former transfer to LIRR
Sheepshead Bay Sheepshead Bay all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 23, 1907 Originally described as at Coney Island Creek, Sheepshead Bay.
Brighton Beach
 Brighton Beach all B weekday rush hours, middays and early evenings ​Q all times August 23, 1907 Originally serviced the Brighton Beach Hotel at this location.
Express tracks continue (no regular service)
Ocean Parkway all Q all times April 22, 1917
Local tracks merge into express tracks
(Local trackways continue to lower level of West Eighth Street)
Coney Island
 West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium all Q all times May 19, 1919
<F> two rush hour trains, peak direction​ (IND Culver Line
)
Brighton tracks on upper level
Disabled access Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue all Q all times May 29, 1919
<F> two rush hour trains, peak direction​ (IND Culver Line)
N all times (BMT Sea Beach Line
)

See also

  • Transportation to Coney Island

References

  1. ^ "Annual Subway Ridership (2018–2023)". Metropolitan Transportation Authority. 2023. Retrieved April 20, 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d e f District, New York (State) Public Service Commission First (January 1, 1921). Annual Report for the Year Ended ... The Commission.
  3. ^
    ISBN 9780823219322
    .
  4. ^ "BRIGHTON LINE TRACK PLANS BRIGHTON LINE TRACK PLANS" (PDF). Electric Railroaders' Association Bulletin. 46 (7): 2. July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 7, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
  5. ^
    newspapers.com
    .
  6. ^ New York (State). Transit Commission. (1930). Tenth Annual Report, 1930. Columbia University Libraries. Albany, N.Y. : J.B. Lyon Co.
  7. ISSN 0362-4331
    , retrieved July 27, 2008
  8. ^ Annual Report 1964–1965. New York City Transit Authority. 1965.
  9. ^ "Letter about the approval of a contract for platform extensions on the Brighton Line" (PDF). New York City Office of the Mayor. June 16, 1964. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
  10. ^ "Brighton Line Riders Your Guide To Service Changes On The B Q M During Rehabilitation Work April 26 Through October 26, 1986" (Document). New York City Transit Authority. April 1986.
  11. ^ a b "The JoeKorNer Brochures". Retrieved February 8, 2018.
  12. ^ "Stillwell Terminal Remains a Sparkling Jewel a Decade after Full Rehabilitation". www.mta.info. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. May 20, 2014. Archived from the original on December 1, 2021. Retrieved August 15, 2016.
  13. ^ "Southern Brooklyn Q stops gearing up for renovations". Second Ave. Sagas. December 10, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2017.
  14. ^ "Brighton Stations Rehabilitation" (PDF). secondavenuesagas.com. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 16, 2017. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
  15. ^ "MTA – Press Release – NYC Transit – Temporary Loss of Brighton Line Express". mta.info. Archived from the original on August 12, 2017. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
  16. ^ "A Message from Line General Manager Jim Leopard... B Q An Overview of the Brighton Line Rehabilitation Project" (Document). New York City Transit. 2009.
  17. ^ "Subway Service Guide" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. September 2019. Retrieved September 22, 2019.
  18. ^ "Hey, What's a "K" train? 1985 Brochure". Flickr – Photo Sharing!. June 17, 2016. Retrieved June 17, 2016.
  19. ^ Mader, Stewart (June 4, 2015). "NYC Subway Maps Have a Long History of Including PATH, NJ Waterfront". stewartmader.com. Retrieved February 9, 2018.
  20. ^ Ronald Sullivan (March 26, 1995). "Bridge Repairs to Disrupt Off-Peak Subway Service". The New York Times. Retrieved July 2, 2016.
  21. ^ "QUEENSBRIDGE / 6TH AVE – BRIGHTON BEACH LINE (Q TRAIN)".
  22. ^ "A Subway Map Remade, in Hopes of Matching Routes and Riders". The New York Times. February 20, 2004. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
  23. ^
    OCLC 49777633 – via Google Books
    .
  24. ^ "More Interborough Service for Brooklyn 2 New Lines". pudl.princeton.edu. Interborough Rapid Transit Company. August 23, 1920. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
  25. ^ a b c d "Opening/Closing Dates". nycsubway.org. May 7, 1994. Archived from the original on September 1, 2021. Retrieved September 1, 2021.

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