Baalbek

Coordinates: 34°0′22.81″N 36°12′26.36″E / 34.0063361°N 36.2073222°E / 34.0063361; 36.2073222
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Not to be confused with Balbec, Indiana, in the United States.
Baalbek
بَعْلَبَكّ
UTC+2 (EET)
 • Summer (DST)+3
CriteriaCultural: i, iv
Reference294
Inscription1984 (8th Session)

Baalbek

Sunni Muslims and Christians.[7]

Baalbek has a history that dates back at least 11,000 years, encompassing significant periods such as

UNESCO World Heritage
site.

In the modern era, Baalbek is a relatively small city that enjoys economic advantages as a sought-after tourist destination. However, the tourism sector has encountered challenges due to conflicts in Lebanon, particularly the 1975–1990 civil war, and the ongoing Syrian civil war since 2011. Main attractions include the ancient Roman temples, the Great Mosque from the Umayyad period, and the Roman quarry site named Hajar al-Hibla.[8]

Name

A few miles from the swamp from which the

Ugaritic Baal Cycle[9] discovered in the 1920s and a separate serpent incantation.[10][11]

Baalbek was called "Heliopolis" during the

Bacchus) were equivalents of the Canaanite deities Hadad, Atargatis
. Local influences are seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which differ from classic Roman design. [19]

The name BʿLBK appears in the

Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ) in Classical Arabic.[25][11] In Modern Standard Arabic, its vowels are marked as Baʿlabak (بَعْلَبَك)[26] or Baʿlabekk.[27] It is Bʿalbik (بْعَلْبِك, is [ˈbʕalbik]) in Lebanese Arabic.[26]

The

Lord Bacchus", from the classical temple complex.[11]

19th-century

Baal-hamon where Solomon had a vineyard,[32][3] and the "Plain of Aven" in Book of Amos.[33][34]

History

Prehistory

The hilltop of

Adon).[41] The site of the present Temple of Jupiter was probably the focus of earlier worship, as its altar
was located at the hill's precise summit and the rest of the sanctuary raised to its level.

In

djinn[45][46][47] and given as a wedding gift to the Queen of Sheba;[19] its actual Roman origin remained obscured by the citadel's medieval fortifications as late as the 16th-century visit of the Polish prince Radziwiłł.[44][48]

Antiquity

Reconstruction of Temple of Jupiter/Baalbek
Roman Heliopolis and its surroundings in the 2nd and the 3rd century.

After

Indian monsoon and caravans to the coast and interior.[54]

capitals ornamenting the columns of the Temple of Bacchus

During

Praeneste in Italy
as the two largest sanctuaries in the Western world.

The emperor

Emesan priest "of the sun" like Elagabalus.[63]

The town became a battleground upon the

bishop of Edessa, attempted to have himself martyred by disrupting the pagans of Baalbek but was only thrown down the temple stairs along with his companion.[72] It became the seat of its own bishop as well.[3] Under the reign of Justinian, eight of the complex's Corinthian columns were disassembled and shipped to Constantinople for incorporation in the rebuilt Hagia Sophia sometime between 532 and 537.[citation needed] Michael the Syrian claimed the golden idol of Heliopolitan Jupiter was still to be seen during the reign of Justin II (560s & 570s),[72] and, up to the time of its conquest by the Muslims, it was renowned for its palaces, monuments, and gardens.[74]

Middle Ages

The ruins of a Baalbek mosque c. 1900
Mamluk
fortifications

Baalbek was occupied by the

Aleppo, in 1025.[19]

In 1075, it was finally lost to the Fatimids on its conquest by

Ayyub, father of Saladin. Upon Zengi's assassination in 1146, Ayyub surrendered the territory to Unur, who was acting as regent for Muhammad's son Abaq. It was granted to the eunuch Ata al-Khadim,[19]
who also served as viceroy of Damascus.

In December 1151, it was raided by the garrison of

Nur ad-Din in 1154[19] after Ayyub had successfully intrigued against Abaq from his estates near Baalbek. Ayyub then administered the area from Damascus on Nur ad-Din's behalf.[79] In the mid-12th century, Idrisi mentioned Baalbek's two temples and the legend of their origin under Solomon;[80] it was visited by the Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela in 1170.[44]

Baalbek's citadel served as a jail for

prisoners of war.[81] In 1171, these captives successfully overpowered their guards and took possession of the castle from its garrison. Muslims from the surrounding area gathered, however, and entered the castle through a secret passageway shown to them by a local. The Crusaders were then massacred.[81]

Three major earthquakes occurred in the 12th century, in 1139, 1157, and 1170.

sultan of Aleppo, seized Damascus and demanded Baalbek's surrender. Instead, its emir did homage and agreed to regular payments of tribute.[19]

The

Mongolian general Kitbuqa took Baalbek in 1260 and dismantled its fortifications. Later in the same year, however, Qutuz, the sultan of Egypt, defeated the Mongols and placed Baalbek under the rule of their emir in Damascus.[19] Most of the city's still-extant fine mosque and fortress architecture dates to the reign of the sultan Qalawun in the 1280s.[citation needed] By the early 14th century, Abulfeda the Hamathite was describing the city's "large and strong fortress".[91] The revived settlement was again destroyed by a flood on 10 May 1318, when water from the east and northeast made holes 30 m (98 ft) wide in walls 4 m (13 ft) thick.[92] 194 people were killed and 1500 houses, 131 shops, 44 orchards, 17 ovens, 11 mills, and 4 aqueducts were ruined, along with the town's mosque and 13 other religious and educational buildings.[92] In 1400, Timur pillaged the town,[93] and there was further destruction from a 1459 earthquake.[94]

Early modernity

Harfush family. Like the Hamadas, the Harfush emirs were involved on more than one occasion in the selection of Church officials and the running of local monasteries.
Tradition holds that many Christians quit the Baalbek region in the eighteenth century for the newer, more secure town of Zahlé on account of the Harfushes' oppression and rapacity, but more critical studies have questioned this interpretation, pointing out that the Harfushes were closely allied to the Orthodox Ma'luf family of Zahlé (where indeed Mustafa Harfush took refuge some years later) and showing that depredations from various quarters as well as Zahlé's growing commercial attractiveness accounted for Baalbek's decline in the eighteenth century. What repression there was did not always target the Christian community per se. The Shiite 'Usayran family, for example, is also said to have left Baalbek in this period to avoid expropriation by the Harfushes, establishing itself as one of the premier commercial households of Sidon and later even serving as consuls of Iran.[95]

From the 16th century, European

ceiling by Robert Adam and its portico inspired that of St George's in Bloomsbury.[121]

During the 18th century, the western approaches were covered with attractive groves of

Acre, in the last half of the 18th century.[citation needed] All the same, Baalbek remained no destination for a traveller unaccompanied by an armed guard.[citation needed] Upon the pasha's death in 1804, chaos ensued until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt occupied the area in 1831, after which it again passed into the hands of the Harfushes.[94] In 1835, the town's population was barely 200 people.[113] In 1850, the Ottomans finally began direct administration of the area, making Baalbek a kaza under the Damascus Eyalet and its governor a kaymakam.[94]

Excavations

The largest stone at Baalbek
, uncovered in 2014

sherd featured cuneiform letters.[123]

In 1977,

world's largest ancient block. The stone was found underneath and next to the Stone of the Pregnant Woman ("Hajjar al-Hibla") and measures around 19.6 m × 6 m × 5.5 m (64 ft × 20 ft × 18 ft). It is estimated to weigh 1,650 tonnes (1,820 tons).[128]

20th century

A detail from a 1911 map of Turkey in Asia, showing Baalbek's former rail connections

Baalbek was connected to the

independence of Lebanon in 1941 but colonial rule continued until 1943. Baalbek still has its railway station[130] but service has been discontinued since the 1970s, originally owing to the Lebanese Civil War
.

The Roman ruins have been the setting for the long running Baalbek International Festival.

In March 1974,

Shia villages, such as Jebchit.[136]

On 24/25 June 1999, following elections in Israel and the new administration undecided, the

al Manar radio station’s offices in a four storey building in Baalbek which was completely demolished. The attacks also hit Beirut’s power stations and bridges on the roads to the south. An estimated $52 million damage was caused. Eleven Lebanese were killed as well as two Israelis in Kiryat Shmona. [137]

Second Lebanon War
. Baalbek was a major target, with more than 70 bombs dropped.

2006 Lebanon War

Main article: Operation Sharp and Smooth

On the evening of 1 August 2006,

IDF was acting on information that Goldwasser and Regev were at the hospital. al-Jazeera and other sources claimed the IDF was attempting to capture senior Hezbollah officials, particularly Sheikh Mohammad Yazbek.[140] The hospital had been empty for four days, the most unwell patients having been transferred and the rest sent home.[139] No Israelis were killed;[138] Five civilians were abducted and interrogated by the Israelis, presumably because one shared his name with Hassan Nasrallah, the secretary general of Hezbollah;[141] they were released on August 21.[142] Another 9 civilians were killed on 7 August by a strike in the middle of Brital, just south of Baalbek, and by the subsequent attack on the car leaving the scene for the hospital.[143] On 14 August just before the ceasefire took effect, two Lebanese police and five Lebanese soldiers were killed by a drone strike while driving their van around the still-damaged road through Jamaliyeh.[144]

Conservation work at Lebanon's historic sites began in October.[145] The ruins at Baalbek were not directly hit but the effects of blasts during the conflict toppled a block of stones at the Roman ruins and existing cracks in the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus were feared to have widened.[145] Frederique Husseini, director-general of Lebanon's Department of Antiquities, requested $550,000 from Europeans to restore Baalbek's souk and another $900,000 for repairs to other damaged structures.[145]

Ruins

See also:
List of largest monoliths in the world
1911 diagram of the ruins after the Puchstein excavations.[146] (Facing SW, with the Temple of Jupiter labelled "Temple of the Sun")

The Tell Baalbek temple complex, fortified as the town's citadel during the Middle Ages,

Qubbat Duris, a 13th-century Muslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is built out of granite columns, apparently removed from Baalbek.[46] Further, the jointed columns were once banded together with iron; many were gouged open[147] or toppled by the emirs of Damascus to get at the metal.[46] As late as the 16th century, the Temple of Jupiter still held 27 standing columns[100] out of an original 58;[148] there were only nine before the 1759 earthquakes[2] and six today.[when?
]

The complex is located on an immense[

Stone of the Pregnant Woman: it lies unused in a nearby quarry 800 m (2,600 ft) from the town.[150] Its weight, often exaggerated, is estimated at 1,000 tonnes (1,100 tons).[151] A fifth, still larger stone weighing approximately 1,200 tonnes (1,300 tons)[152] lies in the same quarry. This quarry was slightly higher than the temple complex,[124][153] so no lifting was required to move the stones. Through the foundation there run three enormous passages the size of railway tunnels.[38]

The temple complex was entered from the east through the

Antoninus Caracalla and empress Julia Domna.[155][l]

Immediately behind the Propylaeum is a hexagonal forecourt

cypress grove, but better specimens show that the coins displayed a single stalk of grain instead.[156]

The rectangular Great Court to its west covers around 3 or 4 acres (1.2 or 1.6 ha)[74] and included the main altar for burnt offering, with mosaic-floored lustration basins to its north and south, a subterranean chamber,[157] and three underground passageways 17 ft (5.2 m) wide by 30 ft (9.1 m) high, two of which run east and west and the third connecting them north and south, all bearing inscriptions suggesting their occupation by Roman soldiers.[74] These were surrounded by Corinthian porticoes, one of which was never completed.[157] The columns' bases and capitals were of limestone; the shafts were monoliths of highly polished red Egyptian granite 7.08 m (23.2 ft) high.[157] Six remain standing, out of an original 128.[citation needed] Inscriptions attest that the court was once adorned by portraits of Marcus Aurelius's daughter Sabina, Septimius Severus, Gordian, and Velius Rufus, dedicated by the city's Roman colonists.[157] The entablature was richly decorated but is now mostly ruined.[157] A westward-facing basilica was constructed over the altar during the reign of Theodosius; it was later altered to make it eastward-facing like most Christian churches.[72]

The Great Court of ancient Heliopolis's temple complex

The Temple of Jupiter—once wrongly credited to

Julio-Claudian emperors enriched its sanctuary in turn. In the mid-1st century, Nero built the tower-altar opposite the temple. In the early 2nd century, Trajan added the temple's forecourt, with porticos of pink granite shipped from Aswan at the southern end of Egypt.[citation needed
]

The

Rashid Pasha.[163] Two spiral staircases in columns on either side of the entrance lead to the roof.[96]

The Temple of Venus—also known as the Circular Temple or Nymphaeum[155]—was added under Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century[citation needed] but destroyed under Constantine, who raised a basilica in its place.[96] Jessup considered it the "gem of Baalbek".[155] It lies about 150 yd (140 m) from the southeast corner of the Temple of Bacchus.[155] It was known in the 19th century as El Barbara[155] or Barbarat el-Atikah (St Barbara's), having been used as a Greek Orthodox church into the 18th century.[96][o]

The ancient walls of Heliopolis had a circumference of a little less than 4 mi (6 km).

Barkuk's restoration of the moat in preparation for Timur's arrival.[94]

Material from the ruins is incorporated into a ruined mosque north of downtown

Qubbat Duris on the road to Damascus.[165] In the 19th century, a "shell-topped canopy" from the ruins was used nearby as a mihrab, propped up to show locals the direction of Mecca for their daily prayers.[165]

Tomb of Husayn's daughter

Under a white dome further towards town is the tomb of Khawla, daughter of Hussein and granddaughter of Ali, who died in Baalbek while Husayn's family was being transported as prisoners to Damascus.[166][167]

Ecclesiastical history

Heliopolis (in Phoenicia; not to be confused with the Egyptian bishopric

Heliopolis in Augustamnica
) was a bishopric under Roman and Byzantine rule, but it disappeared due to the Islamic rule.

In 1701, Eastern Catholics (

Eparchy of Baalbek, which in 1964 was promoted to the present Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Baalbek.[citation needed
]

Titular see

In the

Titular bishopric
, promoted back in 1932, with its name changed (avoiding Egyptian confusion) in 1933 to (non-Metropolitan) Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis in Phoenicia.

The title has not been assigned since 1965. It was held by:[168]

Climate

Baalbek has a mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with significant continental influences. It is located in one of the drier regions of the country, giving it an annual average of 450 millimetres or 18 inches of rainfall compared with 800 to 850 millimetres (31 to 33 in) in coastal areas, overwhelmingly concentrated in the months from November to April. Baalbek has hot rainless summers with cool (and occasionally snowy) winters. Autumn and spring are mild and fairly rainy.

Climate data for Baalbek
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 7.1
(44.8) 		8.8
(47.8) 		13.5
(56.3) 		18.3
(64.9) 		23.5
(74.3) 		28.4
(83.1) 		31.6
(88.9) 		31.7
(89.1) 		28.3
(82.9) 		22.9
(73.2) 		15.8
(60.4) 		10.3
(50.5) 		20.0
(68.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.4
(38.1) 		4.7
(40.5) 		8.8
(47.8) 		13.3
(55.9) 		18.3
(64.9) 		22.3
(72.1) 		25.2
(77.4) 		25.3
(77.5) 		22.3
(72.1) 		17.8
(64.0) 		11.2
(52.2) 		6.2
(43.2) 		14.9
(58.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −0.1
(31.8) 		0.9
(33.6) 		4.1
(39.4) 		8.0
(46.4) 		12.5
(54.5) 		16.1
(61.0) 		19.0
(66.2) 		19.2
(66.6) 		16.8
(62.2) 		13.4
(56.1) 		7.4
(45.3) 		2.7
(36.9) 		10.0
(50.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 71
(2.8) 		67
(2.6) 		54
(2.1) 		34
(1.3) 		26
(1.0) 		4
(0.2) 		1
(0.0) 		2
(0.1) 		6
(0.2) 		23
(0.9) 		45
(1.8) 		56
(2.2) 		389
(15.2)
Source: [169]

Notable people

In popular culture

Twin towns

Baalbek is

twinned
with:

Gallery

  • The Round Temple and the Temple of the Muses located outside the sanctuary complex
    The Round Temple and the Temple of the Muses located outside the sanctuary complex
  • Temple of Bacchus
    Temple of Bacchus
  • Remains of the Propylaeum, the eastern entrance to the site
    Remains of the Propylaeum, the eastern entrance to the site
  • The Great Court of Temples Complex
    The Great Court of Temples Complex
  • Temple of Venus
    Temple of Venus
  • Massive columns of the Temple of Jupiter
    Massive columns of the Temple of Jupiter
  • An 1873 German map of Asia Minor & Syria, with relief illustrating the Beqaa (El Bekaa) valley
    An 1873 German map of Asia Minor & Syria, with relief illustrating the Beqaa (El Bekaa) valley
  • Panorama, around 1870, by Félix Bonfils
    Panorama, around 1870, by
    Félix Bonfils
  • Baalbek in 1910, after the arrival of rail
    Baalbek in 1910, after the arrival of
    rail
  • The ruins of Baalbek facing west from the hexagonal forecourt in the 19th century
    The ruins of Baalbek facing west from the hexagonal forecourt in the 19th century
  • The "Stone of the Pregnant Woman" in the early 20th century, the Temple of Jupiter in the background
    The "
    Stone of the Pregnant Woman
    " in the early 20th century, the Temple of Jupiter in the background

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled Ba'labek,[1] Balbec,[2] Baalbec[3] and Baalbeck.[4]
  2. ^ The name also appears in the Hellenized form Balanios and Baal Helion in records describing the acts of Theodosius's reign.[17]
  3. Iunu, however, is almost certainly mistaken.[18]
  4. First Book of Kings.[43][44]
  5. ^ Daniel Lohmann wrote that, "due to the lack of remains of temple architecture, it can be assumed that the temple this terrace was built for was never completed or entirely destroyed before any new construction started..."[55][page needed] "The unfinished pre-Roman sanctuary construction was incorporated into a master plan of monumentalisation. Apparently challenged by the already huge pre-Roman construction, the early imperial Jupiter sanctuary shows both an architectural megalomaniac design and construction technique in the first half of the first century AD."[56]
  6. ^ "It is apparent from a graffito on one of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter that that building was nearing completion in 60 A.D."[57]
  7. ^ Coins of Septimius Severus bear the legend COL·HEL·I·O·M·H: Colonia Heliopolis Iovi Optimo Maximo Helipolitano.[3]
  8. ^ It is mentioned, inter alia, by Sozomen[68] and Theodoret.[69]
  9. De Saulcy (1851),[118] and Frauberger (19th c.).[119]
  10. ^ "Current survey and interpretation, show that a pre-Roman floor level about 5 m lower than the late Great Roman Courtyard floor existed underneath".[56]
  11. ^ The staircase is shown intact on a coin from the reign of the emperor Philip the Arab.[38]
  12. ^ The inscriptions were distinct in the 18th century[2] but becoming illegible by the end of the 19th:[155]

    [I. O.] M. DIIS HELIVPOL. PRO SAL.
    [ET] VICTORIIS D. N. ANTONINI PII FEL. AVG. ET IVLIÆ AVG. MATRIS D. N. CAST. SENAT. PATR., AVR. ANT. LONGINVS SPECVL. LEG. I.
    [ANT]ONINIANÆ CAPITA COLVMNARVM DVA ÆREA AVRO INLVMINATA SVA PECVNIA EX VOTO L. A. S.    [71]
    and
    [I. O.] M. PRO SAL[VTE] D. [N.] IMP. ANTONIN[I PII FELICIS...]
    [...SEP]TIMI[VS...] BAS AVG. LIB. CAPVT COLVMNÆ ÆNEUM AVRO INL[VMINAT]VM VOTVM SVA PECVNIA L. [A. S.]    [71]
  13. ^ It has also been misattributed to Apollo and Helios.[74] The locals once knew it as the Dar es-Sa'adeh or "Court of Happiness".[163]
  14. ^ The cornice of the exaedrum in the northwest corner remains partially sculpted and partially plain.[147]
  15. bakshish from visitors and for use of the olive oil lamps used to make vows to St Barbara.[155]

References

  1. ^ Cook's (1876).
  2. ^ a b c d e f Wood (1757).
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l EB (1878), p. 176.
  4. ^ إتحاد بلديات غربي بعلبك [West Baalbeck Municipalities Union] (in Arabic). 2013. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  5. ^
    • Olausson, Lena (2 August 2006). "How to Say: Baalbek". London: BBC. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
    • "Baalbek". Merriam–Webster. 2020.
    • "Baalbek". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020.
  6. ^ "Mohafazah de Baalbek-Hermel". Localiban. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  7. ISBN 9783886181056
    .
  8. ^
    ISBN 978-1-5381-2043-9
    .
  9. ^ KTU 1.4 IV 21.
  10. ^ KTU 1.100.3.
  11. ^ a b c d Steiner (2009).
  12. ^ "Baalbek". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
  13. ^ a b Lendering (2013).
  14. ^ a b Jidejian (1975), p. 5.
  15. ^ Amm. Marc., Hist., Bk XIV, Ch. 8, §6 Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
  16. ^ Jidejian (1975), p. 57.
  17. ^ a b c Jessup (1881), p. 473.
  18. ^ a b c d e f Cook (1914), p. 550.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t EI (1913), p. 543.
  20. ^ Mishnah, Maaserot 5:8
  21. ^ Brit. Mus. Add. 12150.
  22. Theophania
    , 2.14.
  23. ^ Burkitt (1904), p. 51.
  24. ^ Overbeck (1865), p. 196.
  25. ^ Arastu (2014), p. 616.
  26. ^ a b "Arabic" (PDF). ALA-LC Romanization Tables. Washington: Library of Congress. 2015.
  27. ^ EI (1913).
  28. ^ DGRG (1878).
  29. ^ Josh. 11:17
  30. ^ 1 Kings 9:17–18
  31. ^ a b c New Class. Dict. (1862).
  32. ^ Song of Songs 8:11.
  33. ^ Amos 1:5,
  34. ^ Jessup (1881), p. 468.
  35. ^ Jessup (1881), p. 453.
  36. ^ a b EB (1911).
  37. ^ "Lebanon, Baalbek". Berlin: German Archaeological Institute. 2004. Archived from the original on 11 October 2004. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  38. ^ a b c d e Jessup (1881), p. 456.
  39. ^ a b c DGRG (1878), p. 1036.
  40. ^ Hélène Sader.[where?]
  41. ^ Jidejian (1975), p. 47.
  42. ^ Jessup (1881), p. 470.
  43. ^ 1 Kings 7:2–7.
  44. ^ a b c d CT (2010).
  45. ^ a b Volney (1787), p. 224.
  46. ^ a b c d DGRG (1878), p. 1038.
  47. ^ Jessup (1881), p. 454.
  48. ^ a b Radziwiłł (1601).
  49. ^ a b EB (1911), p. 89.
  50. ^ Josephus, Ant., XIV.3–4.
  51. ^ Pliny, Nat. Hist., V.22.
  52. Geogr., Bk. 14, Ch. 2, §10
    . (in Greek)
  53. ^
    Ptolemy, Geogr., Bk. V, Ch. 15, §22 Archived 29 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine
    .
  54. ^ a b c d e f g h DGRG (1878), p. 1037.
  55. ^ Lohmann (2010).
  56. ^ a b Lohmann (2010), p. 29.
  57. ^ Rowland (1956).
  58. ^ Kropp & al. (2011).
  59. ^ a b c Macrobius, Saturnalia, Vol. I, Ch. 23.
  60. ^ a b Cook (1914), p. 552.
  61. ^ Macrobius,[59] translated in Cook.[60]
  62. ^ a b Graves (1955), p. 40–41.
  63. ^ a b c Jessup (1881), p. 471.
  64. ^ a b c d e f Cook (1914), p. 554.
  65. ^ Cook (1914), p. 552–553.
  66. ^ Cook (1914), p. 553.
  67. ^ Ulpian, De Censibus, Bk. I.
  68. ^ Sozomen, Hist. Eccles., v.10.
  69. ^ Theodoret, Hist. Eccles., III.7 & IV.22.
  70. ^ Bar Hebraeus, Hist. Compend. Dynast., p. 85. (in Latin)
  71. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cook (1914), p. 556.
  72. ^ a b c d e f g h Cook (1914), p. 555.
  73. ^ Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Dindorf, Ludwig, eds. (1832). "σπθʹ Ὀλυμπιάς" [CCLXXXIX]. Chronicon Paschale. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (in Greek and Latin). Vol. I. Bonn: Impensis ed. Weberi. p. 561.
  74. ^ a b c d e f g h i EB (1878), p. 177.
  75. ^ CMH (1966), p. 634.
  76. ^ a b Venning & al. (2015), p. 109.
  77. ^ EI (1936), p. 1225.
  78. ^ Venning & al. (2015), p. 138.
  79. ^ Venning & al. (2015), p. 141–142.
  80. ^ Jessup (1881), p. 475–476.
  81. ^ a b c Alouf (1944), p. 94.
  82. ^ a b c Humphreys (1977), p. 52.
  83. ^ Lock 2013, p. 63.
  84. ^ a b Runciman (1951), p. 410.
  85. ^ Sato (1997), p. 57.
  86. ^ a b Baldwin (1969), p. 572.
  87. ^ Köhler (2013), p. 226.
  88. ^ a b c Lyons & al. (1982), pp. 132–133.
  89. ^ Sato (1997), p. 58.
  90. ^ Venning & al. 2015, p. 299.
  91. ^ a b Jessup (1881), p. 476.
  92. ^ a b Alouf (1944), p. 96.
  93. ^ le Strange, 1890, p. xxiii.
  94. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n EI (1913), p. 544.
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Sources and external links

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Further reading

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