Babylon
Bābilim | |
Alternative name | |
---|---|
Location | Babil Governorate, Iraq |
Region | Mesopotamia |
Coordinates | 32°32′33″N 44°25′16″E / 32.54250°N 44.42111°E |
Type | Settlement |
Part of | Babylonia |
Area | 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi) |
History | |
Founded | c. 1894 BC |
Abandoned | c. 1000 AD |
Cultures | Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, Muslim caliphate |
Site notes | |
Archaeologists | Hormuzd Rassam, Robert Koldewey, Taha Baqir, recent Iraqi Assyriologist |
Condition | Ruined |
Ownership | Public |
Official name | Babylon |
Criteria | Cultural: (iii), (vi) |
Designated | 2019 (43rd session) |
Reference no. | 278 |
Region | Arab States |
Babylon was an ancient city located on the lower
The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) of the Akkadian Empire.[3] Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city, subject to the Akkadian Empire. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the Gutian Dynasty for a few decades before the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon.
The town became part of a small independent
empires. The last known habitation of the town dates from the 11th century AD, when it was referred to as the "small village of Babel".It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[6] Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890[7] to 900 ha (2,200 acres).[8] The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in other classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.[9] UNESCO inscribed Babylon as a World Heritage Site in 2019. The site receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of whom are Iraqis.[10][11] Construction is rapidly increasing, which has caused encroachments on the ruins.[12][13][14]
Names
The spelling Babylon is the Latin representation of
Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original Sumerian name.[17] However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic folk etymology to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename.[18] I. J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the original name was Babilla, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly named places in Sumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian Bāb-ili(m), and that the Sumerian name Kan-dig̃irak was a loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name.[19][15] The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian" Third Dynasty of Ur.[20] (Bab-Il).
A fragmentary inscription dating to the
Another attested spelling for the city of Babylon is TIN.TIR.KI, attested sparsely in the
In the
In Pali and Sanskrit literature, the name appears as Bāveru.[28]
Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.[29][30]
Archaeology
From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion.
Claudius J. Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon (1815), pp. 1–2.[31]
The site covers an area of about 1000 hectares (with about 450 hectares within the several kilometer long city walls) containing a number of mounds, the most prominent of which are Kasr, Merkes (13 meters above the plain), Homera, Ishin-Aswad, Sahn, Amran, and Babil.
- Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it was the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenankiof Nebuchadnezzar II. It lies in the center of the site and rises to 19 meters above the plain.
- Amran Ibn Ali – about 22 meters high and at the south of the site. It is the site of Ea and Nabu.
- Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenistic remains are here. Most of the remains of the ziggurat Etemenanki were heaped here when it was demolished by Alexander the Great in 331 BC.[34]
- Babil – a mound about 25 meters high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.
Subsequent excavation, looting, and reconstruction have reduced these original heights found by the German excavators.
Excavations
Claudius Rich, working for the British East India Company in Baghdad, excavated Babylon in 1811–12 and again in 1817.[35][36][37] Captain Robert Mignan explored the site briefly in 1827 and in 1829 he completed a map of Babylon which includes the location of several villages.[38][39] William Loftus visited there in 1849.[40] Austen Henry Layard made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 before abandoning the site.[41][42]
Fulgence Fresnel, Julius Oppert and Felix Thomas heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854.[43][44] However, much of their work was lost in the Qurnah Disaster when a transport ship and four rafts sank on the Tigris river in May 1855.[45] They had been carrying over 200 crates of artifacts from various excavation missions when they were attacked by Tigris river pirates near Al-Qurnah.[46][47] Recovery efforts, assisted by the Ottoman authorities and British Residence in Baghdad, loaded the equivalent of 80 crates on a ship for Le Havre in May 1856.[48][45] Few antiquities from the Fresnel mission would make it to France.[45][46][43] Subsequent efforts to recover the lost antiquities from the Tigris, including a Japanese expedition in 1971–72, have been largely unsuccessful.[48]
Henry Rawlinson and George Smith worked there briefly in 1854.[49] The next excavation was conducted by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of the British Museum. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context.[50][51] Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's excavation began.[2]
A team from the
Further work by the
A topographical survey at the site was conducted in 1974, followed in 1977 by a review of the stratigraphical position of the main monuments and reconsideration of ancient water levels, by the Turin Centre for Archaeological Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia and the Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences.[64] The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and Ninurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon.[65][66][67]
A number of Iraqi excavations have occurred at Babylon, the earliest in 1938. From 1979–1981 excavation and restoration work was conducted at the Ninmah Temple, Istar Temple, and the Southern Palace.[68][69][70][71][72][73] Occasional excavations and restorations continued in the 1970s and 1980s.[74]
During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited.[75][76] Indeed, most of the known tablets from all modern excavations remain unpublished.[2]
Sources
The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in other classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.[9] Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information.[77]
Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, Sippar, Mari, and Haradum.
Early references
The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for
The so-called
Classical dating
Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's Chronographia, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, Belus.[79] A similar figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who, according to Pliny,[80] stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC.[81] All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC; however, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts.
History
The first attested mention of Babylon was in the late 3rd millennium BC during the Akkadian Empire reign of ruler Shar-Kali-Sharri one of whose year names mentions building two temples there. Babylon was ruled by ensi (governors) for the empire. Some of the known governors were Abba, Arši-aḫ, Itūr-ilum, Murteli, Unabatal, and Puzur-Tutu. After that nothing is heard of the city until the time of Sumu-la-El. After around 1950 BC Amorite kingdoms will appear in Uruk and Larsa in the south.[82]
Old Babylonian period
According to a Babylonian king list,
Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory; its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states of Elam, Isin, and Larsa overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital of Hammurabi's short-lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, including Isin, Larsa, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Kish, Adab, Eshnunna, Akshak, Shuruppak, Bad-tibira, Sippar, and Girsu, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered Elam to the east, and the kingdoms of Mari and Ebla to the northwest. After a conflict with the Old Assyrian period king Ishme-Dagan, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign.
After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as
Texts from Old Babylon often include references to Shamash, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, and Marduk, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's rising political power.[15]
Middle Babylon
In 1595 BC,
Babylon was weakened during the Kassite era, and as a result, Kassite Babylon began paying tribute to the Pharaoh of Egypt, Thutmose III, following his eighth campaign against Mitanni.[85][86] Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1053 BC) to the north, and Elam to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city.
By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including the Arameans and Suteans in the 11th century BC, and finally the Chaldeans in the 9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC.
Assyrian period
During the rule of the
Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensive library at Ninevah.[2]
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Under Nabopolassar, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and the allied Medo-Babylonian armies finally destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 626 BC and 609 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes called the Chaldean) Empire.[88][89][90]
With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his son Nebuchadnezzar II (604–561 BC).[91] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including the Etemenanki ziggurat, and the construction of the Ishtar Gate—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, said to have been built for his homesick wife, Amytis. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location. Stephanie Dalley has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located near the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.[92]
Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with the
Persian conquest
In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to
According to 2 Chronicles 36 of the Hebrew Bible, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the Jews, to return to their own lands. The text found on the Cyrus Cylinder has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed[by whom?] because the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea.
Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king
The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of Marduk, who was the most important god, but by the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 BC (Nebuchadnezzar IV) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However, these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's entry in 331 BC.
Hellenistic period
In October of 331 BC,
Renewed Persian rule
Under the
However, Babylon maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of
Muslim conquest
In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was conquered and settled by the expanding
According to medieval Arabic writings, Babylon was a popular site to extract bricks,[2] which were used to build cities from Baghdad to Basra.[107]
European travellers, in many cases, could not discover the city's location, or mistook
Modern era
The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travellers to Babylon, including
By 1905, there were several villages in Babylon, one of which was Qwaresh with about 200 households located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls. The village grew due to the need for laborers during the German Oriental Society excavations (1899-1917).[citation needed]
Iraqi government
The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to
On 14 February 1978, the
Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after Hussein's downfall.[114] Similar projects were conducted at Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur and Hatra, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab achievement.[115]
In the 1980s, Saddam Hussein completely removed the village of Qwaresh, displacing its residents.[116][14] He later constructed a modern palace in that area called Saddam Hill over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a ziggurat. In 2003, he intended to have a cable car line constructed over Babylon, but plans were halted by the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Under US and Polish occupation
Following the
They caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists.[118]
A US military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum".[119] The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out" and criticised Polish troops for causing "terrible damage" to the site.[120][121] Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and commissioned a report titled Report Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of the Babylon Archaeological Site, which it presented at a meeting on 11–13 December 2004.[112] In 2005, the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of Culture.[117]
In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the I Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. However, he also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters.[122] An article published in April 2006 stated that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it into a cultural center.[123][124]
Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.[125]
Present-day
In May 2009, the provincial government of
Thousands of people reside in Babylon within the perimeter of the ancient outer city walls, and communities in and around them are "rapidly developing from compact, dense settlements to sprawling suburbia despite laws restricting constructions".[39][14] Modern villages include Zwair West, Sinjar Village, Qwaresh, and Al-Jimjmah among which the first two are better off economically.[128] Most residents primarily depend on daily wage earning or have government jobs in Al-Hillah, while few cultivate dates, citrus fruits, figs, fodder for livestock and limited cash crops, although income from the land alone is not enough to sustain a family.[14] Both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims live in Sinjar village with mosques for both groups.[14]
The State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) is the main authority responsible for the conservation of the archeological site. They are assisted by Antiquity and Heritage Police and maintain a permanent presence there. The World Monuments Fund is also involved in research and conservation. The SBAH Provincial Inspectorate Headquarters is located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls on the east side and several staff members and their families reside in subsidized housing in this area.
Cultural importance
Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture.[129]
Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the Bible, the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city. Examples include:
- Babylon is used in capitalist world, or any form of imperialist evil. It is believed that Babylon actively seeks to exploit and oppress the people of the world, specifically people of African descent. It is believed by Rastafarians that Babylon attempts to forbid the smoking of ganja because this sacred herb opens minds to the truth.[130]
- Babylon 5 – A science fiction series set on a futuristic space station that acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures. Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting, respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or looking on each other with prejudice and suspicion.[citation needed]
- Babylon A.D. takes place in New York City, decades in the future.[non-primary source needed]
- Babilonas (Lithuanian name for "Babylon") is a real estate development in Lithuania.[non-primary source needed]
- "Babylon" is a song by Lady Gaga that uses allusions to ancient Biblical themes to discuss gossip.[non-primary source needed]
- Eternals (2021), depicts Babylon on its greatest extent and is shown to be protected and aided in its development by the eternals.
Biblical narrative
In the Book of Genesis,[131] Babel (Babylon) is described as founded by Nimrod along with Uruk, Akkad and perhaps Calneh—all of them in Shinar ("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—the Tower of Babel. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language.
After Hezekiah, the king of Judah, became ill, Baladan, king of Babylon, sent a letter and gifts to him. Hezekiah showed all of his treasures to the delegation, and the prophet Isaiah later said to him: "Behold, the days are coming when everything that is in your house, and what your fathers have stored up to this day, will be carried to Babylon; nothing will be left."[132] Some 200 years later, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, invaded Judah, laid siege to Jerusalem and deported the Jews to Babylon.[133]
The prophet Daniel lived in Babylon for most of his life. Nebuchadnezzar made Daniel ruler over the entire province of Babylon for having interpreted his dream. Years later, Belshazzar held a banquet, at which fingers of a hand appeared and wrote on a wall. Daniel was called to provide an interpretation of the writings, upon which he explained that God had put an end to Belshazzar's kingdom. Belshazzar was killed that very night, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom.[134]
The Book of Isaiah says the following regarding Babylon: "It will be like Sodom and Gomorrah when God overthrew them. It will never be inhabited or lived in for all generations; no Arab will pitch his tent there; no shepherds will make their flocks lie down there."
In
The
Babylon in art
-
Nebuchadnezzar II ordering the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon to please his consort Amytis, René-Antoine Houasse, 1676
-
The Daughters of Jerusalem Weeping by the Waters of Babylon by John Martin, 1834
-
Alexander the Great receiving the keys of Babylon, by Johann Georg Platzer, c. 1740
-
Figured Apocalypse of the Dukes of Savoy – Escorial E Vit.5 – Fall of Babylon, 15th century
-
The Walls of Babylon by Antonio Tempesta, 1610
-
The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, c. 1563
See also
- Akitu
- Cities of the ancient Near East
- Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets
- List of Kings of Babylon
- Tomb of Daniel
Notes
- ^ Please see Chronology of the ancient Near East for more discussion on dating events in the 2nd millennium BC, including the Sack of Babylon.
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-29821-6. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
- ^ a b c d e f g Olof Pedersén, "Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries in Babylon Archived 2018-11-20 at the Wayback Machine", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011), pp. 47–67.
- ^ Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2017). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Wiley. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-119-45907-1. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
- ^ Finkel (1988) P.58.
- ^ Finkel, Irving and Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7141-1171-1.
- .
- ISBN 9780191588457. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ISBN 9789042914490. Archivedfrom the original on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ^ a b Seymour 2006, pp. 140–142.
- ^ a b Fordham, Alice (23 February 2021). "'It Was Like Magic': Iraqis Visit Babylon And Other Heritage Sites For 1st Time". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 2021-02-23. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
- ^ a b "Ancient city of Babylon heads list of new Unesco world heritage sites". The Guardian. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 29 November 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
- ^ Bringing Babylon back from the dead - CNN Video, 3 April 2013, archived from the original on 2022-01-07, retrieved 2021-09-29
- ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the originalon 2021-12-28. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ a b c d e "Management Plan of Babylon". unesco.org. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Wilfred G. Lambert, "Babylon: Origins"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011), pp. 71–76.
- OCLC 977799662.
- OCLC 459000074.
- ^ Liane Jakob-Rost, Joachim Marzahn: Babylon, ed. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatisches Museum (Kleine Schriften 4), 2nd ed., Putbus 1990, p. 2
- OCLC 31239619.
- ^ Dietz-Otto Edzard: Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, Beck, Munich 2004, p. 121.
- ^ a b c d Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2019). "What's in a Name? Babylon and its Designations throughout History". Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 14 – via Academia.
- ^ S2CID 162349822.
- ^ Koslova, N. (1998). "Eine syllabische Schreibung des Namens Babylon in einem Ur III-Text aus Umma" (PDF). NABU: Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaire: 23–24.
- ^ "ribo/babylon7". oracc.iaas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
- ^ Gen. 11:9.
- ^ Magnus Magnusson, BC: The Archaeology of the Bible Lands. BBC Publications 1977, pp. 198–199.
- ^ "babble". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on September 29, 2020.
- ^ Malalasekera, G.P. (1938). Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names. Vol. 2. p. 280.
- JSTOR 4200384.
- ^ )
- ^ Seymour 2006, p. 175.
- ISBN 978-3-96327-136-6.
- ^ [1]Da Riva, Rocío, "Urban Religion in First Millennium BCE Babylonia", in Naming and Mapping the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean, pp.763-790, 2022
- ^ van de Mieroop, Marc, "Reading Babylon", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 257–75, 2003
- ^ [2]Claudius J. Rich, "Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon", 1815
- ^ [3]Claudius J. Rich, "Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry into the correspondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains still visible on the site", 1818
- ^ [4]Claudius J. Rich, "Narrative of a journey to the site of Babylon in 1811", Posthumous compilation, 1839
- OCLC 1003963534.
- ^ a b World Monuments Fund (2015). Babylon Site Management Plan.
- ^ Loftus, William Kennett (1857). Travels and researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: with an account of excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849-52. Robert Carter & Brothers.
- ^ A. H. Layard, "Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon", New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853
- ^ H V. Hilprecht, "Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th Century", Philadelphia: A. J. Holman and Company, 1903
- ^ a b Pillet, Maurice (1922). L'expédition scientifique et artistique de Mésopotamie et de Médie, 1851-1855 / Maurice Pillet,... (in French). Bibliothèque nationale de France: É. Champion (Paris). Retrieved 2021-04-13.
- ISBN 0-543-74939-8) (in French)
- ^ ISBN 9781317949954.
- ^ a b Potts, D. T. "Potts 2020. 'Un coup terrible de la fortune:' A. Clément and the Qurna disaster of 1855. in Finkel, I.L. and Simpson, St J., eds. In Context: The Reade Festschrift. Oxford: Archaeopress". Archaeopress Archaeology: 235–244. Retrieved 2021-04-13 – via Academia.edu.
- ^ Samuel D. Pfister (20 January 2021). "The Qurnah Disaster: Archaeology & Piracy in Mesopotamia". Bible History Daily. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
- ^ a b Namio Egami. "The Report of The Japan Mission For The Survey of Under-Water Antiquities At Qurnah: The First Season (1971-72)". pp. 1–45. Retrieved 2021-04-13.
- ^ Rawlinson, Henry C., "On the Birs Nimrud, or the Great Temple of Borsippa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 1–34, 1861
- ^ Hormuzd Rassam, "Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, Babylon, Borsippa, Cuthah, and Van, etc", Curts & Jennings, 1897
- ^ Julian Reade, "Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries", Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39–62, 1993
- ^ [5]Pedersén, O., "Work on a Digital Model of Babylon Using Archaeological and Textual Evidence", Mesopotamia 46, pp. 9–22, 2011
- ^ [6]Robert Koldewey, "Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen", J.C. Hinrichs, 1913; Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns (translator), The Excavations at Babylon, Macmillan and Co., 1914. "Up to the present time only about half the work has been accomplished, although since it began we have worked daily, both summer and winter, with from 200 to 250 workmen" (p. v).
- ^ [7]R. Koldewey, "Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa", WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37–49, 1911 (in German)
- ^ [8]R. Koldewey, "Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon Nach Den Ausgrabungen Durch Die Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft", WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918
- ^ F. Wetzel, "Die Stadtmauren von Babylon", WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1–83, 1930
- ^ F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, "Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki", WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1–36, 1938
- ISBN 3-7861-2001-3)
- ISBN 978-0-19-957055-3. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
- ^ Douglas Frayne, "Babylon", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 323-438, 1990
- ^ [9]Lenzen, H. J., "The Greek theatre in Babylon", Sumer 15, pp. 39, 1959
- ISBN 3-8053-1610-0
- ^ Schmidt, J., "Das Bīt Akītu von Babylon. Mit einem Beitrag von B. Finster", BaM 33, pp. 281–31, 2002
- ^ G. Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111–152, 1977
- ^ [10]G. Bergamini, "Preliminary Report on the 1987 Season of Excavations at Babylon, Iraq", Sumer 47, pp. 30-34, 1995
- ^ G. Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987", Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5–17, 1988
- ^ G. Bergamini, "Preliminary report on the 1988–1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna", Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5–12, 1990
- ^ [11]Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and the inner wall" Sumer 41, pp. 19, 22, Arabic section pp. 34–35, 1985
- ^ [12]Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 41, pp. 52–54, Arabic section pp. 77–82, 1985
- ^ [13]Al-Suba’ai, ‘Ata Allha Mohammed, "Ishtar temple and the residential quarter west of the temple", Sumer 41, pp. 63–66, Arabic pp. 101–107, 1985
- ^ [14]Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structure", Sumer 41, pp. 58–59, Arabic section, pp. 94–97., 1985
- ^ [15]Isḥaq, Danial, "The excavations at the southern part of the procession street and the Nabû ša ḫarê temple", Sumer 41, pp. 30–33, Arabic section, pp. 48–54, Figs. 1–18, 1985
- ^ [16]Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "Excavation at the northeastern part of the inner wall", Sumer 41, pp. 20–21, Arabic section, pp. 36–42, 1985
- ^ Damerji, Moayad Said Basim, "Babylon – ka.dingir.ra – “gate of god”. The story of a city killed by legends and oblivion", Mesopotamia 47, pp. 1–102, 2012
- ^ "Excavations in Iraq 1981–1982], Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983
- ^ Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1–13, 1985
- ^ from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Vedeler (2006), pp. 7–8.
- ^ Records of the Past, Archibald Sayce, 2nd series, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 11.
- ^ N.H. vii. 57
- ^ The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, George Rawlinson, Vol. 4, p. 526–527.
- ^ Rients de Boer. "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86
- ^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23.
- ^ Vedeler (2006), pp. 8–15. "However, this later tradition is almost certainly a simplification or even a reworking of the actual events surrounding Sumu-abum, who was never regarded as an actual ancestor to the other kings of the Babylon I dynasty (Edzard 1957:122); in reality the relationship of Sumu-abum to Babylon was much more complex. It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon. Goddeeris (2002:319–320) sums these parallels up as follows: Sa 1 and 2 / Sl 5 and 6: building the wall of Babylon. Sa 9 / Sl 'b': building the wall of Dilbat. Sa 13/14 / Sl 20/21: the destruction and seizure of Kazallu."
- ISBN 9781476779713. Archivedfrom the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
- from the original on 2021-11-16. Retrieved 2021-11-16.
- ISBN 978-1-57506-327-0. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
- ISBN 978-0-275-95259-4. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
- ISBN 978-0-19-100158-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-0142-5.
- ISBN 0-520-20222-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5
- ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 88–89: "Preventing uprisings on the fringes of the empire was a major concern for Assyrian kings, and a number of policies developed to meet this need, among them mass deportations. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. This practice was effective, and continued throughout the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires until 539 BC and Cyrus's conquest of Babylon. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves (Yamauchi 2002: 365), and some did rise to high status positions at the core of the empire (a possibility reflected in the career of the biblical Daniel, who rises to the status of trusted royal confidant)."
- ^ "British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BC)". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
- ^ "ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 2019-05-05. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
- ^ OCLC 4559420. Archived from the original on 2023-03-16. Retrieved 2019-08-19.; or see "Herodotus' Description of Babylon and the Babylonians". shsu.edu. 2017. Archived from the originalon 2017-05-05.
- ^ Isaiah 44:27
- ^ Jeremiah 50–51
- ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 107–115.
- ^ Cyrus Cylinder Archived 2011-12-01 at the Wayback Machine The British Museum. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
- ^ "Mesopotamia: The Persians". Wsu.edu:8080. 1999-06-06. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-09.
- ^ Nissen, Hans J. and Heine, Peter, "Alexander and the Seleucids in Babylonia (331–141 BCE)", From Mesopotamia to Iraq: A Concise History, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 114-119, 2009
- ^ Bennett 1997, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Mommsen, Dickson & Haverfield 2004, p. 72.
- ISBN 978-1-8386-0169-0.
- ^ Seymour 2006, p. 148.
- ^ a b Julian E. Reade, "Disappearance and rediscovery"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 13–30.
- ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 148–151.
- ISBN 978-1-8386-0169-0.
- ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 169–173.
- ^ a b John Curtis, "The Present Condition of Babylon"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011).
- ^ a b John Curtis, "The Site of Babylon Today"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 213–220.
- ^ Paul Lewis, "Babylon Journal; Ancient King's Instructions to Iraq: Fix My Palace" (archive), New York Times, 19 April 1989.
- ^ "Saddam removed from ancient Babylon 'brick by brick' Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine", ABC News 20 April 2003.
- ISBN 9780226729435.
- ^ "Iraq's ancient city of Babylon gets long-overdue international recognition". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-01.
- ^ a b McCarthy, Rory; Kennedy, Maev (2005-01-15). "Babylon wrecked by war". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2016-08-20.
- ^ Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2005-04-25). "History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2018-07-08. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
- ^ Leeman, Sue (January 16, 2005). "Damage seen to ancient Babylon". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
- ^ Marozzi, Justin (2016-08-08). "Lost cities #1: Babylon – how war almost erased 'mankind's greatest heritage site'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2016-08-20.
- ^ Heritage News from around the world Archived 2016-02-02 at the Wayback Machine, World Heritage Alert!. Retrieved April 19, 2008.
- ^ Cornwell, Rupert. US colonel offers Iraq an apology of sorts for devastation of Babylon Archived 2011-09-19 at the Wayback Machine, The Independent, April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008.
- ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey. Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon, International Herald Tribune, April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. Archived June 12, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ McBride, Edward. Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age of Saddam Hussein, MetropolisMag. Retrieved April 19, 2008. Archived December 10, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Maryam U. Musa, "The Situation of the Babylon Archaeological Site until 2006", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011).
- ^ Damon, Arawa (4 April 2013). "Bringing Babylon back from the dead". CNN. Archived from the original on 2017-06-06.
- ^ Myers, Steven Lee (2 May 2009). "Babylon Ruins Reopen in Iraq, to Controversy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-08-06.
- ^ "Maps and Plans: Excavations and Investigations at Babylon". unesco.org. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
- ^ Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. "In practice, the solution adopted to visualize cities which were in fact unknown was a mixture of classical (Greek) and Egyptian elements, with long colonnades, even built on more than one level—which will then prove totally foreign to the unfired brick architecture of Mesopotamian cities—and with plenty of obelisks and the odd sphinx. To this mixture is added, often and willingly, something of Ottoman architecture, showing cupolas and minarets, clearly useful in picturing an unchangeable Near East which therefore needed to retain elements of remote antiquity in a modern age."
- ISBN 9781566395847.
- ^ Genesis 10:10
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 20:12-19, Isaiah 39 – New American Standard Bible". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 24-25, 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 39:1-10 – New American Standard Bible". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Daniel 5 – English Standard Version". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19-20 – English Standard Version". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ "Jeremiah Chapters 50, 51". Prophecy against Babylon. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19–20, Jeremiah 49:17–18, Jeremiah 49:13, Zephaniah 2:9, Ezekiel 26:14, Ezekiel 26:19–21, Jeremiah 49:33 – English Standard Version". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 91–101.
- ^ Merrill Tenney, New Testament Survey, Inter-varsity Press, 1985, p. 383
- ^ Craig R. Koester, Revelation (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2014), 506, 684
Sources
- Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16524-5.
- Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva, Margarete van Ess, & Joachim Marzahn, eds. (2011). Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022212-8.
- Finkel, I. L. and M. J. Seymour, eds. Babylon. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 0-19-538540-3. Exhibition organized by British Museum, Musée du Louvre & Réunion des Musées Nationaux, and Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.
- ISBN 978-1-61451-602-6. Originally published as Immaginare Babele in 2013.
- Mommsen, Theodor; Dickson, William Purdie; Haverfield, Francis (2004). The provinces of the Roman Empire: from Caesar to Diocletian, Vol. II. Gorgias Press LLC. ISBN 978-1-59333-026-2.
- Seymour, M. J. (2006). The idea of Babylon: archaeology and representation in Mesopotamia (Doctoral thesis). University College London. OCLC 500097655.
- Vedeler, Harold Torger. A Social and Economic Survey of the Reign of Samsuiluna of Babylon (1794–1712 BC). PhD dissertation accepted at Yale, May 2006.
Further reading
- Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and its inner wall" Sumer 35, pp. 112–117, 1979 (in Arabic)
- Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 35, pp. 82–93, 1979 (in Arabic)
- Al-Kassar, Awwad Abdul-Kareem, "Views and conclusions about the excavations of the northern part of the procession street for the year 1981" Sumer 41, Arabic section, pp. 137–138, 1985 (in Arabic)
- Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structures or the so-called Hanging Gardens", Sumer 35, pp. 127–136, 1979 (in Arabic)
- Dalley, Stephanie (2021). The City of Babylon: A History c. 2000 BC - AD116. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-50177-1.
- Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "The inner wall of Babylon", Sumer 35, pp. 137–149, 1979 (in Arabic)
- [17]Koldewey, Robert, "Pflastersteine Von Aiburschabu In Babylon", J. C. Hinrichs'sch Buchhandlung, 1901
- Maul, Stefan (1997). "The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City – Reflection and Navel of the World". Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts. – originally published in German "Die altorientalische Hauptstadt – Abbild und Nabel der Wel". Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationale Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9–10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag: 109–124. 1997.
- [18]Maurice, Thomas, "Observations on the ruins of Babylon, as recently visited and described by Claudius James Rich, Esq. resident for the East India Company at Bagdad; with illustrative engravings", London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1816
- ISBN 0-500-27384-7(paperback)
- Nasir, Mohammad, "The Temple of Ishtar of Agade", Sumer 35, pp. 61–81, 1979 (in Arabic)
- Nasir, Mohammad, "The so-called Summer Palace (Nebuchadnezzar’s life palace)" Sumer 35, pp. 150–159, 1979 (in Arabic)
- [19]Sollberger, Edmond, "Babylon’s beginnings", Sumer 41, pp. 10–13, 1985
- "UNESCO: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon". Associated Press. 10 July 2009.
External links
- Iranian archaeologists to perform survey in Babylon - Tehran Times - January 29, 2023
- Modern Wars and Ancient Governance: Archaeology and Textual Finds from First Millennium BCE Babylon – Odette Boivin – ANE Today – Nov 2022
- – The Babylonian Akītu Festival and the Ritual Humiliation of the King – Sam Mirelman – ANE Today – Sep 2022 Archived 2023-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
- The Babylon Project – Freie Universität Berlin
- Babylon on In Our Time at the BBC
- Iraq Image – Babylon Satellite Observation
- Site Photographs of Babylon – Oriental Institute Archived 2009-04-27 at the Wayback Machine
- 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Babylon
- Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C., Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 18, 2008-Mar. 15, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
- Osama S. M. Amin, "Visiting the ancient city of Babylon", Ancient History Et Cetera, 17 November 2014.
- Video of reconstructed palace: Iraq elections: The palace that Nebuchadnezzar built on YouTube
- Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005
- "Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon". Associated Press. July 10, 2009.
- UNESCO Final Report on Damage Assessment in Babylon