Babylonian captivity

The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in

.

In the biblical account, after the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem, which resulted in tribute being paid by the Judean king Jehoiakim.^[1] In the fourth year of Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, Jehoiakim refused to pay further tribute, which led to another siege of the city in Nebuchadnezzar II's seventh year (598/597 BCE) that culminated in the death of Jehoiakim and the exile to Babylonia of his successor Jeconiah, his court, and many others; Jeconiah's successor Zedekiah and others were exiled when Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Jerusalem in his 18th year (587 BCE), and a later deportation occurred in Nebuchadnezzar II's 23rd year (582 BCE). However, the dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees vary in the several biblical accounts.^[2][3]

The Bible recounts how after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Achaemenid Empire at the Battle of Opis in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were permitted by the Persians to return to Judah.^[4][5] According to the biblical Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem began c. 537 BCE in the new Persian province of Yehud Medinata. All of these events are considered significant to the developed history and culture of the Jewish people, and ultimately had a far-reaching impact on the development of Judaism.

Archaeological studies have revealed that, although the city of Jerusalem was utterly destroyed, other parts of Judah continued to be inhabited during the period of the exile. Most of the exiled did not return to their homeland, instead travelling westward and northward. Many settled in what is now northern

Biblical accounts of the exile

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v t e

In the late 7th century BCE, the

.

After the defeat of Pharaoh Necho's army by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of the young nobility of Judah were taken to Babylon.

In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two parties, one supporting Egypt, the other Babylon. After Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a three-month siege of Jerusalem beginning in late 598 BCE.^[8] Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, died during the siege^[9] and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin (also called Jeconiah) at the age of eighteen.^[10] The city fell on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE,^[11] and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its Temple and took Jeconiah, his court and other prominent citizens (including the prophet Ezekiel) back to Babylon.^[12] Jehoiakim's uncle Zedekiah was appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babylon continued to consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or rightful ruler.

Despite warnings by

The first governor appointed by Babylon was

.

According to the book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the exile in 538 BCE,^[15] the year after he captured Babylon.^[16] The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period from 521 to 516 BCE.^[15]

Archaeological and other extra-biblical evidence

First campaign (597 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, his capture of its king, his appointment of another in his place, and the plundering of the city in 597 BCE are corroborated by a passage in the Babylonian Chronicles:^[17]: 293

In the seventh year, in the month of Kislev, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Hatti-land, and encamped against the City of Judah and on the ninth day of the month of Adar he seized the city and captured the king. He appointed there a king of his own choice and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon.

Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets, describing ration orders for a captive King of Judah, identified with King Jeconiah, have been discovered during excavations in Babylon, in the royal archives of Nebuchadnezzar.^[18][19] One of the tablets refers to food rations for "Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu" and five royal princes, his sons.^[20]

Second campaign (589–587 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian forces returned in 589 BCE and rampaged through Judah, leaving clear archaeological evidence of destruction in many towns and settlements there.

^: 295

Aftermath in Judah

Archaeological excavations and surveys have enabled the population of Judah before the Babylonian destruction to be estimated to have been approximately 75,000. Taking the different biblical numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000, this would mean that perhaps 25% of the population had been deported to Babylon, with the remaining majority staying in Judah.[17]^: 306 Although Jerusalem was destroyed, with large parts of the city remaining in ruins for 150 years, numerous other settlements in Judah continued to be inhabited, with no signs of disruption visible in archaeological studies.^[17]: 307

Archaeologist Avraham Faust suggests that between the deportations and executions caused by the Babylonians, plus the famines and epidemics that occurred during the war, the population of Judah may have been reduced to as little as 10% of what it had been in the time before deportations.^[22]

Conditions in exile

Overall, Jews were not enslaved in Babylon. Instead, they were comparable to

on agarian lands since Babylonian economy was not slave-based. In addition, they were not perceived as prisoners-of-war. Babylonian Jews were allowed to form their communities, contact with their co-ethnics in Palestine and work in trade and banking, which were lucrative careers. Some worked in high-ranking political positions, which is attested by post-biblical exilic literature.

However, there is evidence for hardship. For example, exiled Jewish leaders were suspected of national disloyalty and were reduced to peasantry, where they worked in agriculture and building projects and performed simple tasks such as farming, shepherding and fishing. This ended when the Persians conquered Babylon. Exiled Jewish commoners were nostalgic about Palestine and, due to circumstance, were forced to abandon temple-based worship. They mostly worshipped in private homes and kept some religious traditions such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, reading of the

Persian restoration

The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,^[24] but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.^[24] Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event.^[25]

As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata^[26]) with different borders, covering a smaller territory.^[25] The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom; archaeological surveys suggesting a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.^[17]: 308

A 2017 exhibition in Jerusalem displayed over 100 cuneiform tablets detailing trade in fruits and other commodities, taxes, debts, and credits accumulated between Jews forced or persuaded to move from Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar around 600 BCE. The tablets included details on one exiled Judean family over four generations, all with Hebrew names.^[27][28]

Most Jews who returned were poor Jews and either saw the exile as "spiritual regeneration" or "divine punishment for sins". One reason why wealthy Jews stayed includes economic opportunities, which were relatively uncommon in Palestine.^[23]

Exilic literature

The exilic period was a rich source for Hebrew literature. Biblical depictions of the exile include

Significance in Jewish history

In the Hebrew Bible, the captivity in Babylon is presented as a punishment for idolatry and disobedience to

]

This period saw the last high point of

This process coincided with the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see Ezra). Prior to exile, the people of Israel had been organized according to tribe. Afterwards, they were organized by smaller family groups. Only the Tribe of Levi continued in its temple role after the return. After this time, there were always sizable numbers of Jews living outside the Land of Israel; thus, it also marks the beginning of the "Jewish diaspora", unless this is considered to have begun with the Assyrian captivity.^{[citation needed]}

In Rabbinic literature, Babylon was one of a number of metaphors for the Jewish diaspora. Most frequently the term "Babylon" meant the diaspora prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. The post-destruction term for the Jewish Diaspora was "Rome", or "Edom".^{[citation needed]}

Chronology

The following table is based on Rainer Albertz's work on Israel in exile, itself based mainly on biblical texts.^[33] (Alternative dates are possible.)

Year	Event
609 BCE	Death of Josiah.
609–598 BCE	Reign of Jehoiakim (succeeded Jehoahaz, who replaced Josiah but reigned only 3 months). Began giving tribute to Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BCE. First deportation, purportedly including Daniel.
598/7 BCE	Reign of Jehoiachin (reigned 3 months). Siege and fall of Jerusalem . Second deportation, 16 March 597.
597 BCE	Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon.
594 BCE	Anti-Babylonian conspiracy.
587 BCE	Siege and fall of Jerusalem. Solomon's Temple destroyed. Third deportation July/August 587.
583 BCE	Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Yehud Province, is assassinated. Many Jews flee to Egypt and a possible fourth deportation to Babylon.
562 BCE	Release of Jehoiachin after 37 years in a Babylonian prison.[34] He remains in Babylon.
539 BCE	Persians conquer Babylon (October).
538 BCE	Decree of Cyrus allows Jews to return to Jerusalem.
520–515 BCE	Return by many Jews to Yehud under Zerubbabel and Joshua the High Priest. Foundations of Second Temple laid.

See also

• Assyrian captivity
• Avignon Papacy, sometimes called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy"
• Al-Yahudu Tablets, 200 clay tablets from the sixth and fifth centuries BCE on the exiled Judean community
• Biblical Egypt
• Return to Zion, biblical account of the return to Judah by some of the exiled Judahites
• Psalm 137, expressing lamentation of the exiles in Babylon for the loss of Jerusalem

References

Further reading

• Yehud Medinata map, CET – Center For Educational technology
• Yehud Medinata Border map, CET – Center For Educational technology
• Alstola, Tero, "Judeans in Babylonia: A Study of Deportees in the Sixth and Fifth Centuries BCE" (Brill, 2019)
• Peter R. Ackroyd, "Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century B.C." (SCM Press, 1968)
• Alstola, "Everyday Life in Exile: Judean Deportees in Babylonian Texts", The Ancient Near East Today : Current News about the Ancient Past, vol. 10, no. 6, 2022
• Rainer Albertz, Bob Becking, "Yahwism after the Exile" (Van Gorcum, 2003)
• Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first phase: the place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the origins of Judaism" (Eerdmans, 2009)
• Nodet, Étienne, "A search for the origins of Judaism: from Joshua to the Mishnah" (Sheffield Academic Press, 1999, original edition Editions du Cerf, 1997)
• Becking, Bob, and Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds), "The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic & Post-Exilic Times" (Brill, 1999)
• Bedford, Peter Ross, "Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah" (Brill, 2001)
• Grabbe, Lester L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period", vol.1 (T&T Clark International, 2004)
• Lipschitz, Oded, "The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)
• Lipschitz, Oded, and Oeming, Manfred (eds), "Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period" (Eisenbrauns, 2006)
• Middlemas, Jill Anne, "The troubles of templeless Judah" (Oxford University Press, 2005)
• Pearce, Laurie, "New Perspectives on the Exile in Light of Cuneiform Texts". In Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible. (Oxford University Press, 2020)
• Stackert, Jeffrey, "Rewriting the Torah: literary revision in Deuteronomy and the holiness code" (Mohr Siebeck, 2007)
• Vanderkam, James, "An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)" (Eerdmans, 2022)

External links

• Media related to Babylonian captivity at Wikimedia Commons
• "Babylonian Captivity". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
• "
  New International Encyclopedia
  . 1905.
• Friedrich Justus Knecht (1910). "LXXV. Fall of the Kingdom of Juda. — The Babylonian Captivity" . A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture. B. Herder.