Bacterial cell structure
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A
Cell morphology
Perhaps the most elemental structural property of bacteria is their morphology (shape). Typical examples include:
- coccus (circle or spherical)
- bacillus (rod-like)
- coccobacillus (between a sphere and a rod)
- spiral (corkscrew-like)
- filamentous (elongated)
Cell shape is generally characteristic of a given bacterial species, but can vary depending on growth conditions. Some bacteria have complex life cycles involving the production of stalks and appendages (e.g.
Perhaps the most obvious structural characteristic of
Comparison of a typical bacterial cell and a typical human cell (assuming both cells are spheres) :
Bacterial cell | Human cell | Comparison | |
---|---|---|---|
Diameter | 1μm | 10μm | Bacterium is 10 times smaller. |
Surface area | 3.1μm2 | 314μm2 | Bacterium is 100 times smaller. |
Volume | 0.52μm³ | 524μm³ | Bacterium is 1000 times smaller. |
Surface-to-volume ratio | 6 | 0.6 | Bacterium is 10 times greater. |
Cell wall
The
Gram-positive cell wall
Gram-positive cell walls are thick and the peptidoglycan (also known as murein) layer constitutes almost 95% of the cell wall in some gram-positive bacteria and as little as 5-10% of the cell wall in gram-negative bacteria. The peptidoglycan layer takes up the crystal violet dye and stains purple in the Gram stain. Bacteria within the Deinococcota group may also exhibit gram-positive staining but contain some cell wall structures typical of gram-negative bacteria.
The cell wall of some gram-positive bacteria can be completely dissolved by lysozymes which attack the bonds between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine. In other gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, the walls are resistant to the action of lysozymes.[4] They have O-acetyl groups on carbon-6 of some muramic acid residues. The matrix substances in the walls of gram-positive bacteria may be polysaccharides or
Outside the cell wall, many gram-positive bacteria have an
Gram-negative cell wall
Gram-negative cell walls are much thinner than the gram-positive cell walls, and they contain a second plasma membrane superficial to their thin
In addition to the peptidoglycan layer the gram-negative cell wall also contains an additional outer membrane composed of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides which face into the external environment. The highly charged nature of lipopolysaccharides confer an overall negative charge to the gram -negative cell wall. The chemical structure of the outer membrane lipopolysaccharides is often unique to specific bacterial strains, and is responsible for many of their antigenic properties.
As a
Many uncultivated gram-negative bacteria also have an
Plasma membrane
The
Gram-negative and mycobacteria have an inner and outer bacteria membrane. As a
Extracellular (external) structures
Fimbriae and pili
S-layers
An S-layer (surface layer) is a cell surface protein layer found in many different bacteria and in some archaea, where it serves as the cell wall. All S-layers are made up of a two-dimensional array of proteins and have a crystalline appearance, the symmetry of which differs between species. The exact function of S-layers is unknown, but it has been suggested that they act as a partial permeability barrier for large substrates. For example, an S-layer could conceivably keep extracellular proteins near the cell membrane by preventing their diffusion away from the cell. In some pathogenic species, an S-layer may help to facilitate survival within the host by conferring protection against host defence mechanisms.
Glycocalyx
Many bacteria secrete extracellular polymers outside of their cell walls called glycocalyx. These polymers are usually composed of polysaccharides and sometimes protein. Capsules are relatively impermeable structures that cannot be stained with dyes such as India ink. They are structures that help protect bacteria from phagocytosis and desiccation. Slime layer is involved in attachment of bacteria to other cells or inanimate surfaces to form biofilms. Slime layers can also be used as a food reserve for the cell.
Flagella
Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell structures are
- Monotrichous– Single flagellum
- Lophotrichous– A tuft of flagella found at one of the cell poles
- Amphitrichous– Single flagellum found at each of two opposite poles
- Peritrichous– Multiple flagella found at several locations about the cell
The
Intracellular (internal) structures
In comparison to eukaryotes, the intracellular features of the bacterial cell are extremely simple. Bacteria do not contain organelles in the same sense as eukaryotes. Instead, the chromosome and perhaps ribosomes are the only easily observable intracellular structures found in all bacteria. There do exist, however, specialized groups of bacteria that contain more complex intracellular structures, some of which are discussed below.
The bacterial DNA and plasmids
Unlike
- Bacterial chromosome, located in the irregularly shaped region known as the nucleoid[5]
- Extrachromosomal DNA, located outside of the nucleoid region as circular or linear plasmids
The bacterial DNA is not packaged using
Along with chromosomal DNA, most bacteria also contain small independent pieces of DNA called plasmids that often encode advantageous traits but not essential to their bacterial host. Plasmids can be easily gained or lost by a bacterium and can be transferred between bacteria as a form of horizontal gene transfer. So plasmids can be described as extrachromosomal DNA in a bacterial cell.
Ribosomes and other multiprotein complexes
In most
Intracellular membranes
While not typical of all
Cytoskeleton
The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons, but advances in imaging technology and structure determination have shown the presence of filaments in these cells.[9] Homologues for all major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes have been found in prokaryotes. Cytoskeletal elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and polarity determination in various prokaryotes.[10]
Nutrient storage structures
Most bacteria do not live in environments that contain large amounts of nutrients at all times. To accommodate these transient levels of nutrients bacteria contain several different methods of nutrient storage in times of plenty for use in times of want. For example, many bacteria store excess carbon in the form of polyhydroxyalkanoates or glycogen. Some microbes store soluble nutrients such as nitrate in vacuoles. Sulfur is most often stored as elemental (S0) granules which can be deposited either intra- or extracellularly. Sulfur granules are especially common in bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as an electron source. Most of the above-mentioned examples can be viewed using a microscope and are surrounded by a thin nonunit membrane to separate them from the cytoplasm.
Inclusions
Gas vacuoles
The cell achieves its height in the water column by synthesising gas vesicles. As the cell rises up, it is able to increase its
Microcompartments
Bacterial microcompartments are widespread, organelle-like structures that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes. provide a further level of organization; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells, rather than by lipid membranes. These "polyhedral organelles" localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism, a function performed by the membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.
Carboxysomes
Magnetosomes
Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments found in magnetotactic bacteria that allow them to sense and align themselves along a magnetic field (magnetotaxis). The ecological role of magnetotaxis is unknown but is thought to be involved in the determination of optimal oxygen concentrations. Magnetosomes are composed of the mineral magnetite or greigite and are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. The morphology of magnetosomes is species-specific.[13]
Endospores
Perhaps the best known bacterial adaptation to stress is the formation of endospores. Endospores are bacterial survival structures that are highly resistant to many different types of chemical and environmental stresses and therefore enable the survival of bacteria in environments that would be lethal for these cells in their normal vegetative form. It has been proposed that endospore formation has allowed for the survival of some bacteria for hundreds of millions of years (e.g. in salt crystals)[14][15] although these publications have been questioned.[16][17] Endospore formation is limited to several genera of gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It differs from reproductive spores in that only one spore is formed per cell resulting in no net gain in cell number upon endospore germination. The location of an endospore within a cell is species-specific and can be used to determine the identity of a bacterium. Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound which composes 5% to 15% of the dry weight of bacterial spores and is implicated in being responsible for the heat resistance of endospores. Archaeologists have found viable endospores taken from the intestines of Egyptian mummies as well as from lake sediments in Northern Sweden estimated to be many thousands of years old.[18][19]
References
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Further reading
- Cell Structure and Organization
- Madigan, Michael T.; Martinko, John M.; Brock, Thomas D. (2005). Brock biology of microorganisms (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-196893-6.