Bald eagle

Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Bald eagle (disambiguation).
"American eagle" redirects here. For other uses, see American eagle (disambiguation).

Bald eagle
Temporal range: Pleistocene-Recent 0.3–0 
Ma[1]
↓
Bald eagle preparing to fly at Kachemak Bay in Alaska, United States
A recording of a bald eagle at Yellowstone National Park

Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)[2]
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Haliaeetus
Species:
H. leucocephalus
Binomial name
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Subspecies
  • H. l. leucocephalus – southern bald eagle
  • H. l. washingtoniensis – northern bald eagle
Bald eagle range
  Breeding resident
  Breeding summer visitor
  Winter visitor
  On migration only
Star: accidental records
Synonyms
  • Falco leucocephalus Linnaeus, 1766

Falco pygargus Daudin, 1800 (nec Linnaeus)

Falco ossifragus Shaw, 1809 (nec Linnaeus)

  • Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus Townsend, 1897 (=H. l. washingtoniensis)

The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey found in North America. A sea eagle, it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), which occupies the same niche as the bald eagle in the Palearctic. Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States, and northern Mexico. It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.

The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish, which it swoops down upon and snatches from the water with its talons. It builds the largest nest of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species, up to 4 m (13 ft) deep, 2.5 m (8.2 ft) wide, and 1 metric ton (1.1 short tons) in weight. Sexual maturity is attained at the age of four to five years.

Bald eagles are not

bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, "white headed". The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males. The yellow beak
is large and hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown.

The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America and appears on its seal. In the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in the contiguous United States. Populations have since recovered, and the species's status was upgraded from "endangered" to "threatened" in 1995, and removed from the list altogether in 2007.

Taxonomy

The bald eagle is placed in the genus Haliaeetus (

romanized: leukos, lit. 'white')[6] and (κεφαλή, kephalḗ, 'head').[7][8]

Bald eagle anatomy

The bald eagle was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae, under the name Falco leucocephalus.[9]

There are two recognized subspecies of bald eagle:[10][11]

The bald eagle forms a

Ma BP) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle Oligocene, 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus.[13]

Description

A portrait style photo of a bald eagle emphasizing its feathers.
Bald eagle plumage

The

cere.[15] The adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range. The closely related African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) (from far outside the bald eagle's range) also has a brown body (albeit of somewhat more rufous hue), white head and tail, but differs from the bald eagle in having a white chest and black tip to the bill.[16]

Head details

The plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.[10][14] Immature bald eagles are distinguishable from the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the only other very large, non-vulturine raptorial bird in North America, in that the former has a larger, more protruding head with a larger beak, straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat and feathers which do not completely cover the legs. When seen well, the golden eagle is distinctive in plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle, with a reddish-golden patch to its nape and (in immature birds) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing.[17]

The bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor (accipitrid) in North America. The only larger species of raptor-like bird is the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), a New World vulture which today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids.[18] However, the golden eagle, averaging 4.18 kg (9.2 lb) and 63 cm (25 in) in wing chord length in its American race (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis), is merely 455 g (1.003 lb) lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald eagle in mean wing chord length by around 3 cm (1.2 in).[16][19] Additionally, the bald eagle's close cousins, the relatively longer-winged but shorter-tailed white-tailed eagle and the overall larger Steller's sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), may, rarely, wander to coastal Alaska from Asia.[16]

A bald eagle showing its wingspan

The bald eagle has a body length of 70–102 cm (28–40 in). Typical wingspan is between 1.8 and 2.3 m (5 ft 11 in and 7 ft 7 in) and mass is normally between 3 and 6.3 kg (6.6 and 13.9 lb).[16] Females are about 25% larger than males, averaging as much as 5.6 kg (12 lb), and against the males' average weight of 4.1 kg (9.0 lb).[10][20][21][22]

The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds with Bergmann's rule: the species increases in size further away from the equator and the tropics. For example, eagles from South Carolina average 3.27 kg (7.2 lb) in mass and 1.88 m (6 ft 2 in) in wingspan, smaller than their northern counterparts.[23] One field guide in Florida listed similarly small sizes for bald eagles there, at about 4.13 kg (9.1 lb).[24] Of intermediate size, 117 migrant bald eagles in Glacier National Park were found to average 4.22 kg (9.3 lb) but this was mostly (possibly post-dispersal) juvenile eagles, with 6 adults here averaging 4.3 kg (9.5 lb).[25] Wintering eagles in Arizona (winter weights are usually the highest of the year since, like many raptors, they spend the highest percentage of time foraging during winter) were found to average 4.74 kg (10.4 lb).[26]

The largest eagles are from

gape to the tip of the bill is 7–9 cm (2.8–3.5 in).[31][32] The bill size is unusually variable: Alaskan eagles can have up to twice the bill length of birds from the southern United States (Georgia, Louisiana, Florida), with means including both sexes of 6.83 cm (2.69 in) and 4.12 cm (1.62 in) in culmen length, respectively, from these two areas.[33][34]

The call consists of weak staccato, chirping whistles, kleek kik ik ik ik, somewhat similar in cadence to a gull's call. The calls of young birds tend to be more harsh and shrill than those of adults.[16][17]

Range

Bald eagle in flight at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

The bald eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the

continental United States, and northern Mexico. It is the only sea eagle endemic to North America. Occupying varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England, northern birds are migratory, while southern birds are resident, remaining on their breeding territory all year. At minimum population, in the 1950s, it was largely restricted to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, northern and eastern Canada, and Florida.[35] From 1966 to 2015 bald eagle numbers increased substantially throughout its winter and breeding ranges,[36] and as of 2018 the species nests in every continental state and province in the United States and Canada.[37]

The majority of bald eagles in Canada are found along the British Columbia coast while large populations are found in the forests of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario.[38] Bald eagles also congregate in certain locations in winter. From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish, British Columbia, about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler. In March 2024, bald eagles were found nesting in Toronto for the first time.[39] The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers, attracted by the salmon spawning in the area.[40] Similar congregations of wintering bald eagles at open lakes and rivers, wherein fish are readily available for hunting or scavenging, are observed in the northern United States.[41]

It has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a white-tailed eagle), and an exhausted juvenile was captured near Castleisland, County Kerry on November 15, 1987.[42] There is also a record of it from Llyn Coron, Anglesey, in the United Kingdom, from October 17, 1978;[43] the provenance of this individual eagle has remained in dispute.

Habitat

In flight during a licensed performance in Ontario, Canada
During training at the Canadian Raptor Conservancy

The bald eagle occurs during its breeding season in virtually any kind of American wetland habitat such as seacoasts, rivers, large lakes or marshes or other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish. Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than 11 km (7 mi), and lakes with an area greater than 10 km2 (4 sq mi) are optimal for breeding bald eagles.[44]

The bald eagle typically requires old-growth and mature stands of

coniferous or hardwood trees for perching, roosting, and nesting. Tree species reportedly is less important to the eagle pair than the tree's height, composition and location.[45] Perhaps of paramount importance for this species is an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water. Selected trees must have good visibility, be over 20 m (66 ft) tall, an open structure, and proximity to prey. If nesting trees are in standing water such as in a mangrove swamp, the nest can be located fairly low, at as low as 6 m (20 ft) above the ground.[46] In a more typical tree standing on dry ground, nests may be located from 16 to 38 m (52 to 125 ft) in height. In Chesapeake Bay, nesting trees averaged 82 cm (32 in) in diameter and 28 m (92 ft) in total height, while in Florida, the average nesting tree stands 23 m (75 ft) high and is 23 cm (9.1 in) in diameter.[47][48] Trees used for nesting in the Greater Yellowstone area average 27 m (89 ft) high.[49] Trees or forest used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than 60%, and no less than 20%, and be in close proximity to water.[44] Most nests have been found within 200 m (660 ft) of open water. The greatest distance from open water recorded for a bald eagle nest was over 3 km (1.9 mi), in Florida.[18]

Bald eagle nests are often very large in order to compensate for size of the birds. The largest recorded nest was found in Florida in 1963, and was measured at nearly 10 feet wide and 20 feet deep.[50]

In Florida, nesting habitats often consist of

longleaf pines (P. palustris), loblolly pines (P. taeda) and cypress trees, but for the southern coastal areas where mangroves are usually used.[46] In Wyoming, groves of mature cottonwoods or tall pines found along streams and rivers are typical bald eagle nesting habitats. Wyoming eagles may inhabit habitat types ranging from large, old-growth stands of ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) to narrow strips of riparian trees surrounded by rangeland.[18] In Southeast Alaska, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) provided 78% of the nesting trees used by eagles, followed by hemlocks (Tsuga) at 20%.[45] Increasingly, eagles nest in human-made reservoirs stocked with fish.[46]

With freshly caught fish in Kodiak

The bald eagle is usually quite sensitive to human activity while nesting, and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance. It chooses sites more than 1.2 km (0.75 mi) from low-density human disturbance and more than 1.8 km (1.1 mi) from medium- to high-density human disturbance.[44] However, bald eagles will occasionally nest in large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities, such as Hardtack Island on the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon or John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity.[51][52] Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance, a family of bald eagles moved to the Harlem neighborhood in New York City in 2010.[53]

While wintering, bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive. They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and (in northern climes) partially unfrozen waters. Alternately, non-breeding or wintering bald eagles, particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance, spend their time in various upland, terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways. In the northern half of North America (especially the interior portion), this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible. Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium-sized mammals, such as prairies, meadows or tundra, or open forests with regular carrion access.[18][45]

Behavior

The bald eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on

updrafts, and food resources. During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain. Migration generally takes place during the daytime, usually between the local hours of 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., when thermals are produced by the sun.[14]

Diet and feeding

The bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey. Fish often comprise most of the eagle's diet throughout their range.[57] In 20 food habit studies across the species' range, fish comprised 56% of the diet of nesting eagles, birds 28%, mammals 14% and other prey 2%.[58] More than 400 species are known to be included in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, far more than its ecological equivalent in the Old World, the white-tailed eagle, is known to take. Despite its considerably lower population, the bald eagle may come in second amongst all North American accipitrids, slightly behind only the red-tailed hawk, in number of prey species recorded.[29][58][59][60]

Behavior

Juvenile with salmon, Katmai National Park

To hunt fish, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its

talons. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish. Osprey also have this adaptation.[54] Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight, with prey up to the size of Canada geese attacked and killed in mid-air.[61] It has been estimated that the gripping power (pounds by square inch) of the bald eagle is ten times greater than that of a human.[62] Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight, but if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle may be dragged into the water. Bald eagles are able to swim, in some cases dragging its catch ashore with its talons, but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia.[63] Many sources claim that bald eagles, like all large eagles, cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions.[46][64] On numerous occasions, when large prey such as large fish including mature salmon or geese are attacked, eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored, low flight over the water to a bank, where they then finish off and dismember the prey.[31][29][58][59] When food is abundant, an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to 1 kg (2.2 lb) of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop. Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable.[46] Occasionally, bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey, especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons, with one bird distracting potential prey, while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it.[15][65][66] While hunting waterfowl, bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly, hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught (white-tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way). When hunting concentrated prey, a successful catch often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully.[31]

They obtain much of their food as carrion or via a practice known as kleptoparasitism, by which they steal prey away from other predators. Due to their dietary habits, bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans.[18] Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience, adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles, which often obtain their food from scavenging.[67][68] They are not very selective about the condition or origin, whether provided by humans, other animals, auto accidents or natural causes, of a carcass's presence, but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence. They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though carcasses of ungulates and large fish are seemingly preferred.[31] Congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather.[69] Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps (dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska)[70] and fish-processing plants.[71]

Fish

In flight with freshly caught fish
Feeding on catfish and other various fishes.[72] Painted by John James Audubon

In Southeast Alaska, fish comprise approximately 66% of the year-round diet of bald eagles and 78% of the prey brought to the nest by the parents.[73] Eagles living in the Columbia River Estuary in Oregon were found to rely on fish for 90% of their dietary intake.[74] At least 100 species of fish have been recorded in the bald eagle's diet.[59] From observation in the Columbia River, 58% of the fish were caught alive by the eagle, 24% were scavenged as carcasses and 18% were pirated away from other animals.[74]

In the

dogfish shark (Squalidae.sp) and Blue walleye (Sander vitreus).[82][83][84]

Fish taken by bald eagles varies in size, but bald eagles take larger fish than other piscivorous birds in North America, typically range from 20 to 75 cm (7.9 to 29.5 in) and prefer 36 cm (14 in) fish.[85] When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around Lake Britton in California, fish measuring 34 to 38 cm (13 to 15 in) were taken 71.8% of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring 23 to 27.5 cm (9.1 to 10.8 in) were chosen only 25% of the time.[86] At nests around Lake Superior, the remains of fish (mostly suckers) were found to average 35.4 cm (13.9 in) in total length.[87] In the Columbia River estuary, most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure less than 30 cm (12 in), but larger fish between 30 and 60 cm (12 and 24 in) or even exceeding 60 cm (24 in) in length also taken especially during the non-breeding seasons.[74] In Neagle Lake, eagles frequently take Northern pike, up to 80 cm (31 in) long.[88] They can take fish up to at least twice their own weight, such as large mature salmons, carps, or even muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), by dragging its catch with talons and pull toward ashore.[29][58][89][90] Much larger marine fish such as Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) and lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris) have been recorded among bald eagle prey though probably are only taken as young, as small, newly mature fish, or as carrion.[60][91]

gray wolves (Canis lupus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily.[73] Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning, usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively. Eagles in Washington need to consume 489 g (1.078 lb) of fish each day for survival, with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter.[93]

Birds

Bald eagle attacking an American coot

Behind fish, the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other waterbirds. The contribution of such birds to the eagle's diet is variable, depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water's surface. Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7% to 80% of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities.[74][94] Overall, birds are the most diverse group in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, with 200 prey species recorded.[29][59][60]

Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium-sized, such as western grebes (Aechmophorus occidentalis), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and American coots (Fulica americana) as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with.[18][74] American herring gull (Larus smithsonianus) are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around Lake Superior.[87] Black ducks (Anas rubripes), common eiders (Somateria mollissima), and double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) are also frequently taken in coastal Maine[80] and velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca) was dominant prey in San Miguel Island.[95]

A bald eagle prepares to pick off a common murre from Colony Rock in Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon, United States.

Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense against eagles by such species, bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages, from eggs to mature adults, and they can effectively cull large portions of a colony.

murres are heading for a "conservation collision" due to heavy eagle predation.[96] Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active, burrow-nesting seabird species such as storm petrels and shearwaters by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside.[98] If a bald eagle flies close by, waterbirds will often fly away en masse, though they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle in other cases. when the birds fly away from a colony, this exposes their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as gulls.[96]

While they usually target small to medium-sized seabirds, larger seabirds such as great black-backed gulls (Larus marinus) and northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) of all ages can successfully be taken by bald eagles.[99][100] Similarly, large waterbirds are occasionally prey as well. Geese such as wintering emperor geese (Chen canagica) and snow geese (C. caerulescens), which gather in large groups, sometimes becoming regular prey.[31][64] Smaller Ross's geese (Anser rossii) are also taken, as well as large-sized Canada geese (Branta canadensis).[101][78] Predation on the largest subspecies (Branta canadensis maxima) has been reported.[102] Large wading birds can also fall prey to bald eagles. For the great blue herons (Ardea herodias), bald eagles are their only serious enemies of all ages.[58][103] Slightly larger Sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) can be taken as well.[104] While adult whooping cranes (Grus americana) are too large and formidable, their chicks can fall prey to bald eagles.[105][106][107] They even occasionally prey on adult tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus).[108] Young trumpeter swans (Cygnus buccinator) are also taken, and an unsuccessful attack on an adult swan has been photographed.[109][110]

Bald eagles have been recorded as killing other

western screech-owls (Megascops kennicotti) to snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus).[29][59][60][111] Larger diurnal raptors known to have fallen victim to bald eagles have included red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis),[112] peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus),[113] northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis),[114] ospreys (Pandion haliaetus)[115] and black (Coragyps atratus) and turkey vultures (Cathartes aura).[116]

Mammals

Carrying a caught cottontail rabbit in Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge
A bald eagle on a whale carcass

American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) are reportedly attacked and killed.[122]

Where available, seal colonies can provide a lot of food. On

domestic cats (Felis catus) and dogs (canis familiaris).[135][136]

Other wild mammalian prey include fawns of deer such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and Sitka deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis), which weigh around 3 kg (6.6 lb) can be taken alive by bald eagles.[137][138] In one instance, a bald eagle was observed carrying 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawn.[139] Additionally, Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) can be preyed upon but most of them are mainly taken as roadkills due to their nocturnal habits.[119][140][131]

Together with the golden eagle, bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock, especially sheep (Ovis aries). There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation, some specimens weighing up to 11 kg (24 lb), by bald eagles. Still, they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle. Both species prefer native, wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods.[141] There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult, pregnant ewe (then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles), which, weighing on average over 60 kg (130 lb), is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species.[142]

Reptiles and other prey

Supplemental prey is readily taken given the opportunity. In some areas, reptiles may become regular prey, especially in warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high. Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile.[18] In coastal New Jersey, 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles. The main species found were common musk turtles (Sternotherus odoratus), diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) and juvenile common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). In these New Jersey nests, mainly subadult and small adults were taken, ranging in carapace length from 9.2 to 17.1 cm (3.6 to 6.7 in).[143] Similarly, many turtles were recorded in the diet in the Chesapeake Bay.[144] In Texas, softshell turtles are the most frequently taken prey,[145] and a large number of Barbour's map turtles are taken in Torreya State Park.[146] Other reptilian and amphibian prey includes southern alligator lizards (Elgaria multicarinata),[95] snakes such as garter snakes and rattlesnakes,[46][147][148][84] and Greater siren (Siren lacertina).[119]

Invertebrates are occasionally taken. In

blue mussels, squids, and starfishes are taken as well.[95]

Interspecific predatory relationships

Pursuing an osprey to steal fish

When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing

corvids, gulls, vultures and other raptors.[70] Occasionally, coyotes, bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) can displace eagles from carrion, usually less confident immature birds, as has been recorded in Maine.[150] Bald eagles are less active, bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism (although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed).[95][19] However, the two species are roughly equal in size, aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way. Neither species is known to be dominant, and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved.[31] Wintering bald and golden eagles in Utah both sometimes won conflicts, though in one recorded instance a single bald eagle successfully displaced two consecutive golden eagles from a kill.[151]

Though bald eagles face few natural threats, an unusual attacker comes in the form of the common loon (G. immer), which is also taken by eagles as prey. While common loons normally avoid conflict, they are highly territorial and will attack predators and competitors by stabbing at them with their knife-like bill; as the range of the bald eagle has increased following conservation efforts, these interactions have been observed on several occasions, including a fatality of a bald eagle in Maine that is presumed to have come about as a result of it attacking a nest, then having a fatal puncture wound inflicted by one or both loon parents.[152]

The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle, with the bald species estimated to number at least 150,000 individuals, about twice as many golden eagles there are estimated to live in North America.

snow geese alongside each other without conflict. Similarly, both eagle species have been recorded, via video-monitoring, to feed on gut piles and carcasses of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in remote forest clearings in the eastern Appalachian Mountains without apparent conflict.[19] Bald eagles are frequently mobbed by smaller raptors, due to their infrequent but unpredictable tendency to hunt other birds of prey.[151] Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites, especially in winters when fish are harder to come by. They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as ospreys, herons and even otters.[31][153] They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), prairie dogs from ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) and even jackrabbits from golden eagles.[154][155] When they approach scavengers such as dogs, gulls or vultures at carrion sites, they often attack them in an attempt to force them to disgorge their food.[46] Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed upon in the wild and are thus considered apex predators.[156]

Reproduction

Bald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age. When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born. It is thought that bald eagles

mate for life. However, if one member of a pair dies or disappears, the survivor will choose a new mate. A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates.[157] Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate, spectacular calls and flight displays by the males. The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free-fall, separating just before hitting the ground.[58][158][159] Usually, a territory defended by a mature pair will be 1 to 2 km (0.62 to 1.24 mi) of waterside habitat.[18]

Mating

Compared to most other raptors, which mostly nest in April or May, bald eagles are early breeders: nest building or reinforcing is often by mid-February, egg laying is often late February (sometimes during deep snow in the North), and incubation is usually mid-March and early May. Eggs hatch from mid April to early May, and the young fledge late June to early July.

Amchitka Island in Alaska.[70]

Egg, Collection at Museum Wiesbaden in Germany

In Sonora, Mexico, eagles have been observed nesting on top of hecho catcuses (Pachycereus pectin-aboriginum).[162] Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah, but currently are only verified to occur only in Alaska and Arizona.[18] The eggs average about 73 mm (2.9 in) long, ranging from 58 to 85 mm (2.3 to 3.3 in), and have a breadth of 54 mm (2.1 in), ranging from 47 to 63 mm (1.9 to 2.5 in).[54][58] Eggs in Alaska averaged 130 g (4.6 oz) in mass, while in Saskatchewan they averaged 114.4 g (4.04 oz).[163][164] As with their ultimate body size, egg size tends to increase with distance from the equator.[58] Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, two being typical. Rarely, four eggs have been found in nests, but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny.[136] Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs.[165] It is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledgling stage. The oldest chick often bears the advantage of larger size and louder voice, which tends to draw the parents' attention towards it.[18] Occasionally, as is recorded in many large raptorial birds, the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling(s), especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different.[18] However, nearly half of known bald eagles produce two fledglings (more rarely three), unlike in some other "eagle" species such as some in the genus Aquila, in which a second fledgling is typically observed in less than 20% of nests, despite two eggs typically being laid.[28] Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs, but the female does most of the sitting. The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage. For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period, at least one adult is at the nest almost 100% of the time. After five to six weeks, the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably (with the parents often perching in trees nearby).[18]

Adult and chick
Chick at Everglades National Park

A young eaglet can gain up to 170 g (6.0 oz) a day, the fastest growth rate of any North American bird.[46] The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks, play tug of war with each other, practice holding things in their talons, and stretch and flap their wings. By eight weeks, the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings, lift their feet off the nest platform, and rise up in the air.[46] The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age, though will remain close to the nest and attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks. Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge. Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development.[164] For the next four years, immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce.[166]

On rare occasions, bald eagles have been recorded to adopt other raptor fledglings into their nests, as seen in 2017 by a pair of eagles in Shoal Harbor Migratory Bird Sanctuary near Sidney, British Columbia. The pair of eagles in question are believed to have carried a juvenile red-tailed hawk back to their nest, presumably as prey, whereupon the chick was accepted into the family by both the parents and the eagles' three nestlings.[167] The hawk, nicknamed "Spunky" by biologists monitoring the nest, fledged successfully.[168]

Longevity and mortality

Newly fledged juvenile

The average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age.[169] In captivity, they often live somewhat longer. In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years. As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey.[170] As they are no longer heavily persecuted, adult mortality is quite low. In one study of Florida eagles, adult bald eagles reportedly had 100% annual survival rate.[19] In Prince William Sound in Alaska, adults had an annual survival rate of 88% even after the Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected eagles in the area.[171] Of 1,428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984, 329 (23%) eagles died from trauma, primarily impact with wires and vehicles; 309 (22%) died from gunshot; 158 (11%) died from poisoning; 130 (9%) died from electrocution; 68 (5%) died from trapping; 110 (8%) from emaciation; and 31 (2%) from disease; cause of death was undetermined in 293 (20%) of cases.[172] In this study, 68% of mortality was human-caused.[172] Today, eagle-shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species' protected status.[173] In one case, an adult eagle investigating a peregrine falcon nest for prey items sustained a concussion from a swooping parent peregrine, and ultimately died days later from it.[174] An early natural history video depicting a cougar (Puma concolor) ambushing and killing an immature bald eagle feeding at a rabbit carcass is viewable online, although this film may have been staged.[175]

Most non-human-related mortality involves nestlings or eggs. Around 50% of eagles survive their first year.

crows and magpies), wolverines (Gulo gulo), fishers (Pekania pennanti), red-tailed hawks, owls, other eagles, bobcats, American black bears (Ursus americanus) and raccoons.[163][177][178][179][108][180][181][182] If food access is low, parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage, thus resulting in less protection.[28] Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree-climbers, but Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island.[70] The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears, having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings.[183]

Relationship with humans

Population decline and recovery

Inside a waste collection and transfer facility, in Homer, Alaska, United States

Once a common sight in much of the continent, the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide DDT.[184] Bald eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification. DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with their calcium metabolism, making them either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs; many of their eggs were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible for them to hatch.[35] It is estimated that in the early 18th century the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000,[185] but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US.[186][187] Other factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, as well as both legal and illegal shooting. In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the territory of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70,000 bald eagles had been shot. Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long-held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons, yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation (lamb predation is rare, human predation is thought to be non-existent).[188] Illegal shooting was described as "the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978.[189] Leading causes of death in bald eagles include lead pollution, poisoning, collision with motor vehicles, and power-line electrocution.[190] A study published in 2022 in the journal Science found that more than half of adult eagles across 38 US states suffered from lead poisoning.[191] The primary cause is when eagles scavenge carcasses of animals shot by hunters.[191] These are often tainted with lead shotgun pellets or rifle rounds, ammunition fragments.[191]

The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty, later extended to all of North America. The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940, protected the bald eagle and the golden eagle, prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds. The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators.[192][193] Perhaps most significant in the species' recovery, in 1972, DDT was banned from usage in the United States due to the fact that it inhibited the reproduction of many birds.[194] DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.[195]

Anacortes
, Washington, United States

With regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded. The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water. In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 individuals, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992;[10] the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska, with about 40,000–50,000, with the next highest population the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20,000–30,000 in 1992.[10] Obtaining a precise count of the bald eagle population is extremely difficult. The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006, when 9789 breeding pairs were reported.[196] For some time, the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida, where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use. Today, the contiguous state with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is Minnesota with an estimated 1,312 pairs, surpassing Florida's most recent count of 1,166 pairs. 23, or nearly half, of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles.[37] In Washington State, there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980. That number increased by about 30 per year, so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests. 2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nests. Further population increases in Washington may be limited by the availability of late winter food, particularly salmon.[197]

The bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995, by the

least concern category on the IUCN Red List.[2] In the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in Prince William Sound, though the local population returned to its pre-spill level by 1995.[15] In some areas, the increase in eagles has led to decreases in other bird populations[199] and the eagles may be considered a pest.[200]

Killing permits

In December 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed extending the permits issued to wind generation companies to allow them to kill up to 4,200 bald eagles per year without facing a penalty, four times the previous number. The permits would last 30 years, six times the current 5-year term.[201][202]

In captivity

Lady Baltimore, a bald eagle in Alaska who survived a poaching attempt, in her Juneau Raptor Center mews
, on August 15, 2015

Permits are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States. Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles that they show are permanently injured individuals that cannot be released to the wild. The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles.[203] The bald eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions.[204]

In Canada[205] and in England[206] a license is required to keep bald eagles for falconry.[207] Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States, but a license may be issued in some jurisdictions to allow use of such eagles in birds-of-prey flight shows.[208][209]

Cultural significance

The bald eagle is important in various Native American cultures and, as the national bird of the United States, is prominent in seals and logos, coinage, postage stamps, and other items relating to the U.S. federal government.

Role in Native American culture

The bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the

Navajo tradition an eagle feather is represented to be a protector, along with the feather Navajo medicine men use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles.[211] The Lakota, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.[212] The Pawnee consider eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young.[213] The Choctaw consider the bald eagle, who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun, as a symbol of peace.[214]

Staff at the National Eagle Repository processing a bald eagle

During the

Plains Indian tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways. The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed. The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.[215]

Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.[216][217]

The

federally recognized Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies.[218]

National bird of the United States

Further information: Great Seal of the United States § Obverse
Seal of the president of the United States

The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America.[219] The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the Roman Republic, in which eagle imagery (usually involving the golden eagle) was prominent. On June 20, 1782, the Continental Congress adopted the design for the Great Seal of the United States, depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with thirteen leaves with its talons.[220][221][222]

The bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government, including the

presidential flag, and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies. Between 1916 and 1945, the presidential flag (but not the seal) showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the urban legend that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.[223]

Contrary to popular legend, there is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever publicly supported the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), rather than the bald eagle, as a symbol of the United States. However, in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris, criticizing the Society of the Cincinnati, he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle's behavior. In the letter Franklin states:[224]

For my own part. I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen the representative of our country. He is a bird of bad moral character. He does not get his living honestly ... besides he is a rank coward: The little king bird not bigger than a sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the district.

Franklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it, with its hereditary membership, as a

noble order unwelcome in the newly independent Republic, contrary to the ideals of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, for whom the Society was named. His reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus.[225]

Popular culture

Largely because of its role as a symbol of the United States, but also because of its being a large predator, the bald eagle has many representations in popular culture. In film and television depictions the call of the red-tailed hawk, which is much louder and more powerful, is often substituted for bald eagles.[226]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766 (bald eagle)". PBDB.
  2. ^
    doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695144A93492523.en
    . Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  3. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  4. ISBN 978-0-8172-4571-9
    .
  5. Perseus Digital Library
    , Tufts University.
  6. ^ λευκός in Liddell and Scott
  7. ^ κεφαλή in Liddell and Scott
  8. ^ Dietz, Joshua. "What's in a Name". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on August 5, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
  9. ^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1766). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii).
  10. ^
    ISBN 84-87334-15-6
  11. ^ "Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
  12. ^ a b Brown, N. L. "Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Endangered Species Recovery Program. Archived from the original on September 12, 2006. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
  13. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(97)81217-3. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2008. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
  14. ^ a b c d Harris. "Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". University of Michigan Museum of Geology. Archived from the original on June 4, 2007. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
  15. ^ a b c d "Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Archived from the original on June 2, 2007. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7136-8026-3
    .
  17. ^
    ISBN 0-679-45122-6
    p. 127
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Travsky, A. & Beauvais, G. "Species Assessment for Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in Wyoming" (PDF). United States Department of the Interior- Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 2, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
  19. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4081-1420-9
    . Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  20. ISBN 978-1-55297-925-9
    .
  21. ^ "Bald Eagle Facts and Information". Eagles.org. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008. Retrieved November 3, 2008.
  22. ^ Dunning, Jr., J.B., ed. (1993). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. CRC Press, Ann Arbor.
  23. ^ Murphy, T. & Hope, C. "Bald Eagles in South Carolina" (PDF). Department of Natural Resources of South Carolina. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
  24. ^ Maehr, D. S.; Kale, H. W. (2005). Florida's Birds: A Field Guide and Reference. Pineapple Press Inc.
  25. ^ Patterson, D.A.; McClelland, B.R.; Shea, D.S.; McClelland, P.T. (1998). "Size Variation of Migrant Bald Eagles at Glacier National Park, Montana". J. Raptor Res. 32 (2): 120–25.
  26. ProQuest 1039149407
    .
  27. ^ "ARKive- Bald Eagle video, photos and facts". ARKive.org- Images of Life on Earth. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012. Retrieved July 20, 2012.
  28. ^
    ISBN 978-1-55521-472-2
    ..
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h Palmer, R. S., ed. (1988). Handbook of North American Birds Volume VI: Diurnal Raptors (Part 1). Yale University Press.
  30. ^ Gende, S. M. (2008). "Perspectives on the Breeding Biology of Bald Eagles in Southeast Alaska". In Wright, Bruce A.; Schempf, Phil (eds.). Bald Eagles in Alaska. University of Alaska Southeast.
  31. ^
    doi:10.2173/bow.baleag.02
    .
  32. ^ Schempf, P. R (1997). "Bald eagle longevity record from Southeastern Alaska". Journal of Field Ornithology. 68 (1): 150–51.
  33. ^ Imler, R. H.; Kalmbach, E. R. (1955). The Bald Eagle and its economic status. Vol. 30. US Government Printing Office.
  34. ^ Friedman, H.; Ridgway, R. (1950). "The birds of north and middle America. Part XI. Cathartidae to Falconidae". U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50.
  35. ^
    ISBN 978-0-394-41405-8
    .
  36. ^ "BBS Trend Maps – Bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus". Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Retrieved December 7, 2018.
  37. ^ a b c Suckling, K.; W. Hodges (September 21, 2007). "Status of the bald eagle in the lower 48 states and the District of Columbia: 1963–2007". www.biologicaldiversity.org. Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
  38. ^ "Animal Facts: Bald Eagle". August 14, 2006. Retrieved October 22, 2018.
  39. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved March 10, 2024.
  40. ^ "Bald Eagle Viewing Directory". Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
  41. ^ "Making their comeback". oswegocountynewsnow.com. January 22, 2017. Retrieved December 7, 2018.
  42. ^ "Bald Eagle Lands Exhausted in Ireland". Associated Press News. December 15, 1987.
  43. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00901.x
    .
  44. ^ a b c "Wildlife Species: Haliaeetus leucocephalus". USDA Forest Service. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
  45. ^ a b c Suring, L. "Habitat Relationships of Bald Eagles in Alaska" (PDF). U.S. Forest Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 5, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "The Bald Eagle in Florida" (PDF). Florida Power & Light Company. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  47. JSTOR 3808650
    .
  48. JSTOR 3801148
    .
  49. JSTOR 3830668
    .
  50. ^ "Largest bird's nest". Guinnessworldrecords.com. Retrieved October 5, 2013.
  51. ^ "Ross Island FAQ" (PDF). Willamette Riverkeeper website. Willamette Riverkeeper. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2010. Retrieved November 7, 2009.
  52. ^ "Bald eagles make nest in Heinz Wildlife Refuge". Delaware Daily Times website. Delaware Daily Times. 2010. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
  53. ^ Carlson, Jen (February 5, 2010). "Bald Eagle Spotted Near Fairway". Gothamist. Archived from the original on March 11, 2010. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
  54. ^
    ISBN 978-0-394-46651-4
    .
  55. ^ "Bald Eagle Facts and Information". Eagles.org. June 28, 2007. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2009.
  56. ^ "Bald Eagle: Life History and Habitat". myfwc.com. April 28, 2009. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
  57. ^ "Bald Eagle Fact Sheet, Lincoln Park Zoo". Lpzoo.org. Archived from the original on May 31, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  58. ^ a b c d e f g h Stalmaster, M.V. (1987). The Bald Eagle. New York: Universe Books.
  59. ^ a b c d e Sherrod, S. K. (1978). "Diets of North American Falconiformes". Raptor Res. 12 (3/4): 49–121.
  60. ^ a b c d Collins, P. W.; Guthrie, D. A.; Rick, T. C.; Erlandson, J. M. (2005). "Analysis of prey remains excavated from an historic bald eagle nest site on San Miguel Island, California". Proceedings of the Sixth California Islands Symposium. Arcata, CA: Institute for Wildlife Studies: 103–120.
  61. ISBN 978-0-7136-8026-3
    .
  62. ^ "Gripping Strength of an Eagle – Understanding psi 101" (PDF). Hawkquest. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved July 20, 2012.
  63. ISBN 978-0-7368-8483-9
    . Retrieved July 12, 2016.
  64. ^ a b Gill Jr., R.; Kincheloe, K. (1993). "Are Bald Eagles Important Predators of Emperor Geese?" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 27 (1): 34–36.
  65. hdl:1877/Letd163
    .
  66. ^ Folk, M. J. (1992). "Cooperative hunting of avian prey by a pair of Bald Eagles". Florida Field Naturalist. 20: 110–12.
  67. JSTOR 3808554
    .
  68. ^ Harmata, A. R. (1984). Bald Eagles of the San Luis valley, Colorado: their winter ecology and spring migration (PhD dissertation). Bozeman: Montana State University.
  69. ^ Griffin, C. R.; Baskett, T. S.; Sparrowe, R. D. (1982). Ecology of Bald Eagles wintering near a waterfowl concentration. Special Scientific Report - Wildlife. Vol. 247. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
  70. ^ a b c d Sherrod, S. K.; White, C. M.; Williamson, F. S. L. (1976). "Biology of the Bald Eagle on Amchitka Island, Alaska". Living Bird. 15: 145–82.
  71. ^ "Bald Eagle | the Peregrine Fund".
  72. doi:10.5962/p.319127
    .
  73. ^ a b c d e Armstrong, R. "The Importance of Fish to Bald Eagles in Southeast Alaska: A Review" (PDF). U.S. Forest Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 5, 2016. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  74. ^ a b c d e f Waston, J.; Garrett, M. & Anthony, R. "Foraging Ecology of Bald Eagles in the Columbia River Estuary" (PDF). Oregon State University. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  75. ^ Daum, David W. "Bald Eagle". Alaska Department of Fish & Game. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  76. ^ Robards, Fredrick C.; Taylor, Allan; Dwight, Allan (1976). Bald Eagles in Alaska.
  77. ^ Kalmbach, E. R.; Imler, Ralph H.; Arnold, Lee W. (1964). The American eagles and their economic status.
  78. ^
    hdl:10919/46051
    .
  79. JSTOR 4157540
    .
  80. ^
    JSTOR 3808554
    .
  81. JSTOR 3808835
    .
  82. ^ "Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald eagle)". Animal Diversity Web.
  83. JSTOR 3800476
    .
  84. ^
    OCLC 35029744
    .
  85. PMID 26996522
    .
  86. JSTOR 20065848
    .
  87. ^
    S2CID 28781482
    .
  88. ^ Sullivan, Michael G. (1985). Population regulation of northern pike (Esox lucius L.) in an unexploited lake in northern Saskatchewan.
  89. ^ "St. Croix surprise: Bald eagle reels in large muskie". Pioneer Press. August 16, 2019. Retrieved August 9, 2022.
  90. ^ "Bald Eagle Catching Salmon 8598". The Brackendale and Yellowstone page. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
  91. JSTOR 1366232
    .
  92. hdl:10919/41925
    .
  93. JSTOR 1942594
    .
  94. ISSN 1061-5466
    .
  95. ^
    doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.05.002
    .
  96. ^ a b c Henderson, B. "Murres and Bald Eagles in a 'Conservation Collision'". Coastwatch- Oregon Shores. Archived from the original on October 6, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  97. ^ "Decline In Alaskan Sea Otters Affects Bald Eagles' Diet". Science Daily. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  98. JSTOR 4512766
    . Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  99. ^ Good, T.P. "Great Black-backed Gull- Behavior- Birds of North America Online". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
  100. ^ Mowbray, Thomas B. "Northern Gannet — Behavior". Birds of North America Online. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved 17 October 2011
  101. S2CID 214260050
    .
  102. doi:10.29173/bluejay4868
    .
  103. doi:10.2307/1521242
    .
  104. ^ Wood, P.; Nesbitt, S.; Steffer, A. (1993). "Bald Eagles Prey on Sandhill Cranes in Florida". Journal of Raptor Research. 27 (3): 164–65.
  105. ^ Evans, R. M. and F. L. Knopf. (1993). "American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos)". In: A. Poole and F. Gill, (eds.), The Birds of North America, No. 57. Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington D.C.: The American Ornithologists Union.
  106. S2CID 36783957
    .
  107. ^ Rabbe, Matthew R.; Caven, Andrew J.; Wiese, Joshua D. (2019). "First description of a Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) attempting depredation on an adult Whooping Crane (Grus americana) of the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population". Monographs of the Western North American Naturalist. 11 (1): 24–32.
  108. ^
    ISBN 978-0-87474-451-4
    .
  109. S2CID 86088372
    .
  110. ^ "Bald Eagle attacking a Trumpeter Swan". Utahbirds.org. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
  111. ^ Jackman, R. E.; Hunt, W. G.; Jenkins, J. M.; Detrich, P. J. (1999). "Prey of nesting bald eagles in northern California". Journal of Raptor Research. 33 (2): 87–96.
  112. ^ Watson, J.; Davison, M.; Leschner, L. (1993). "Bald Eagles rear Red-tailed Hawks". Journal of Raptor Research. 27 (2): 126–27.
  113. PMID 18959310
    .
  114. ISBN 978-0-8263-4145-7
    .
  115. ^ MacDonald, J. (1994). "Bald Eagle attacks adult Osprey". Journal of Raptor Research. 28 (2): 122.
  116. ^ Coleman, J.; Fraser, J. (1986). "Predation on Black and Turkey Vultures". The Wilson Bulletin. 98 (4): 600–01.
  117. ^ Jones, S. (January 1989). "Populations and Prey Selection Wintering Raptors in Boulder, Colorado". Proceedings of the North American Prairie Conferences. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  118. ^ "Seedskadee Officials Discuss Bald Eagle Hunting Strategies". January 24, 2016.
  119. ^
    JSTOR 1367485
    .
  120. ^
    JSTOR 3671786
    .
  121. hdl:10724/31054
    .
  122. doi:10.29173/bluejay4393
    .
  123. S2CID 5843257. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  124. ^ Sherrod, S. K.; White, C. M.; Williamson, F. S. L. (1976). "Biology of the Bald Eagle on Amchitka Island, Alaska". The Living Bird. 15: 143–182.
  125. JSTOR 3504050
    .
  126. JSTOR 3536608
    .
  127. ^ Hunter, Luke (2020). Field guide to carnivores of the world. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  128. ^ Erb, John; Sampson, B.; Coy, P. (2010). "Survival and causes of mortality for fisher and marten in Minnesota". Minn. Dep. Nat. Resour. Summ. Wildl. Res. Findings: 24–31.
  129. S2CID 215746001
    .
  130. doi:10.1644/0.713.1
    .
  131. ^ a b c Oberholser, Harry Church (1906). The North American eagles and their economic relations.
  132. ^ "A Gathering of Eagles". Columbus Audubon.
  133. JSTOR 3503883
    .
  134. S2CID 86591926
    .
  135. ^ Thompson, Sian (April 23, 2014). "Two young eagles preying on cats in Campbell River". Victoria Times Colonist. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
  136. ^ a b Bent, A. C. 1937. Life histories of North American birds of prey, Part 1. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 167.
  137. S2CID 85843273
    .
  138. S2CID 35280296
    .
  139. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
    .
  140. ^ "Eagle eating live Opossum". YouTube. October 10, 2021.
  141. ^ O'Gara, B. (August 3, 1994). "Bald and Golden Eagles damage management and predation control". Cooperative Extension Division Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Nebraska. Archived from the original on June 15, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  142. ^ McEneaney, T.; Jenkins, M. (1983). "Bald Eagle predation on Domestic Sheep". The Wilson Bulletin. 95 (4): 694–95.
  143. ^ "Predation on Northern Diamondback Terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin terrapin) by Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) along the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay Coasts of New Jersey" (PDF). The Wetlands Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2013.
  144. ^ Clark, W. S. (1982). "Turtles as a food source of nesting bald eagles in the Chesapeake Bay region". Journal of Field Ornithology. 53 (1): 49–51.
  145. ^ Mabie, David W.; Merendino, M. Todd; Reid, David H. (1995). "Prey of nesting bald eagles in Texas". Journal of Raptor Research. 29 (1): 10–14.
  146. ^ Means, D. Bruce; Harvey, A. N. N. E. (1999). "Barbour's map turtle in the diet of nesting bald eagles". Florida Field Naturalist. 27 (1): 14–16.
  147. ISSN 0008-3550
    .
  148. ^ Grubb, Teryl G. (1995). "Food habits of bald eagles breeding in the Arizona desert". The Wilson Bulletin: 258–274.
  149. S2CID 83743872
    .
  150. JSTOR 3783240
    .
  151. ^ a b Sabine, N.; Gardner, K. (1987). "Agonistic encounters between Bald Eagles and other raptors wintering in west central Utah". Journal of Raptor Research. 21: 118–120.
  152. ^ Bittel, Jason (May 27, 2020). "Why did a loon stab a bald eagle through the heart?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on May 28, 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2020.
  153. JSTOR 1369047
    .
  154. ^ Jorde, D.G. (1998). "Kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles wintering in South-Central Nebraska". Journal of Field Ornithology. 59 (2): 183–88.
  155. S2CID 12386389
    .
  156. ^ "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Bald Eagle". Sandiegozoo.org. Archived from the original on February 1, 2009. Retrieved March 3, 2009.
  157. ^ R.F. Stocek. "Bald Eagle". Canadian Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on July 3, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
  158. ^ "Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)". Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007. Retrieved April 24, 2007.
  159. ^ Scharper, Julie (January 29, 2015). "Bald eagles fight, tangle and fall out of the sky". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
  160. ^ Erickson, L. (2007). "Bald Eagle, About Bald Eagle Nests". Journey North. Archived from the original on August 30, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2007.
  161. ^ "Amazing Bird Records". Trails.com. July 27, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  162. ^ Brown, B. T.; Warren, P. L.; Anderson, L. S. (1987). "First Bald Eagle nesting record from Sonora, Mexico". Wilson Bulletin. 99: 279–80.
  163. ^
    JSTOR 1365287
    .
  164. ^
    JSTOR 4161989. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  165. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1981.tb01959.x
    .
  166. ^ a b "Habits and Habitats of Bald Eagles". Drexel University. Archived from the original on February 17, 2013. Retrieved January 9, 2013.
  167. ^ "Bald eagle adopts 'mortal enemy' baby hawk". BBC News. June 9, 2017. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  168. ^ "Why This Young Hawk Thinks It's an Eagle". nationalgeographic.com. July 25, 2017. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
  169. ^ "Bald eagle believed oldest banded of its species found dead". Washington Times (Associated Press). June 14, 2015.
  170. ^ "Bald Eagle Fact Sheet". Southern Ontario Bald Eagle Monitoring Project. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  171. JSTOR 3808945
    .
  172. ^ a b Wood, P. B., D. A. Buehler, and M. A. Byrd. (1990). "Raptor status report – Bald Eagle". pp. 13–21 in Proceedings of the southeast raptor management symposium and workshop. (Giron Pendleton, B., Ed.) National Wildlife Federation Washington, D.C.
  173. ^ Fraser, J. D. (1985). "The impact of human activities on Bald Eagle populations-a review". pp. 68–84 in The Bald Eagle in Canada. (Gerrard, J. M. and T. M. Ingram, Eds.) White Horse Plains Publishers Headingley, Manitoba.
  174. ^ "Cornell University". Bna.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
  175. ^ "Cougar vs Eagle". YouTube. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved April 22, 2013.
  176. JSTOR 3809506
    .
  177. ^ Sprunt, A.; Ligas, F. J. (1964). "Excerpts from convention addresses on the 1963 Bald Eagle report". Audubon. 66: 45–47.
  178. ^ Mckelvey, R. W.; Smith, D. W. (1979). "A black bear in a Bald Eagle nest". Murrelet. 60: 106.
  179. ^ Nash, C.; Pruett-Jones, M.; Allen, G. T. (1980). "The San Juan Islands Bald Eagle nesting survey". In Knight, R. L.; Allen, G. T.; Stalmaster, M. V.; Servheen, C. W. (eds.). Proceedings of Washington Bald Eagle symposium. Seattle, WA: The Nature Conservancy. pp. 105–15.
  180. ^ Mabie, D. W.; Todd, M. T.; Reid, D. H. (1994). "Dispersal of Bald Eagles fledged in Texas" (PDF). J. Raptor Res. 28 (4): 213–19. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  181. doi:10.5962/p.357587
    .
  182. ^ Lovallo, M. J. (2008). "Status and management of fisher (Martes pennanti) in Pennsylvania". Management Plan Developed by Bureau of Wildlife Management. Harrisburg, USA: Pennsylvania Game Commission.
  183. YouTube
  184. ISBN 978-0-600-31306-9
    .
  185. American eagle foundation. Archived from the original
    on December 6, 2007. Retrieved January 3, 2008.
  186. ^ "Adopt a Bald Eagle". Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute. May 26, 2016. Retrieved August 4, 2018.
  187. ^ "South Carolina's Bald Eagles – Past Surveys". South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. 2015. Retrieved August 4, 2018.
  188. ^ "American Bald Eagle Is Near Extinction". Popular Science Monthly. March 1930. p. 62.
  189. ^ "Bald Eagle's Status Listed for 48 States". Endangered Species Technical Bulletin. III (3): 9. March 1978.
  190. doi:10.1002/wsb.469
    .
  191. ^ a b c Main, Douglas (February 17, 2022). "Most U.S. eagles suffer from lead poisoning, study suggests". National Geographic. Archived from the original on February 23, 2023.
  192. ^ "Federal Laws that Protect Bald and Golden Eagles". US Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on June 8, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  193. ^ "Bald Eagle Removed from Endangered Species List". US Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on April 20, 2020. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  194. ^ EPA press release (December 31, 1972). "DDT Ban Takes Effect". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on July 5, 2007. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
  195. ^ Barrera, Jorge (July 4, 2005). "Agent Orange has left deadly legacy Fight continues to ban pesticides and herbicides across Canada". Archived from the original on January 24, 2008. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
  196. ^ "Bald Eagle Breeding Pairs 1963 to 2006". U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. March 18, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
  197. ^ "Threatened and Endangered Wildlife in Washington, 2012 Annual Report" (PDF). Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2016. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
  198. ^ "History of Bald Eagle Decline, Protection and Recovery". Archived from the original on June 30, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  199. ISSN 1051-0761
    .
  200. ^ Williams, Wyatt (January 19, 2017). "When the National Bird Is a Burden". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
  201. ^ "New Wind Energy Permits Would Raise Kill Limit of Bald Eagles But Still Boost Conservation, Officials Say". ABC News. May 4, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
  202. ^ Daly, Matthew (April 18, 2013). "New federal rule would permit thousands of eagle deaths". Bigstory.ap.org. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
  203. ^ "Migratory Bird Permits; Possession and Educational Use". US Fish and Wildlife Service. September 21, 2010. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  204. ^ Maestrelli, John R. (March 1975). "Breeding Bald Eagles in Captivity". The Wilson Bulletin. 87 (I): 45–53.
  205. ^ "Birds of prey used for falconry". Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. May 26, 2016.
  206. ^ "Courses". Thirsk Bird of Prey Centre. June 26, 2018. Archived from the original on April 28, 2021. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
  207. ^ "Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1997". Ministry of Attorney General. Retrieved November 7, 2007.
  208. ^ "Meet Challenger, a bald eagle whose soaring skills are in high demand". Washington Post. January 12, 2018.
  209. ^ "'Wings of America' Birds of Prey Show". American Eagle Foundation. January 12, 2018.
  210. ^ Collier, Julie. "The Sacred Messengers". Mashantucket Pequot Museum. Archived from the original on January 24, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
  211. ^ "Eagle Myths and Legends – American Bald Eagle Information". Archived from the original on May 3, 2021. Retrieved September 2, 2015.
  212. ^ Melmer, David (June 11, 2007). "Bald eagles may come off threatened list". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on September 24, 2007. Retrieved August 23, 2007.
  213. ^ "Bald Eagle Population Recovery and the Endangered Species Act". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on April 22, 2014. Retrieved November 22, 2014.
  214. ISBN 978-0-8032-8622-1
    .
  215. ^ Lawrence, Elizabeth Atwood. "The Symbolic Role of Animals in the Plains Indian Sun Dance". University of Washington Press. Archived from the original on July 16, 2007. Retrieved August 23, 2007.
  216. ^ DeMeo, Antonia M. (1995). "Access to Eagles and Eagle Parts: Environmental Protection v. Native American Free Exercise of Religion". Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly. 22 (3): 771–813. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
  217. ^ Boradiansky, Tina S. (1990). "Conflicting Values: The Religious Killing of Federally Protected Wildlife". University of New Mexico School of Law. Archived from the original on August 7, 2007. Retrieved August 23, 2007.
  218. ^ "U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Office of Law Enforcement / Native Americans and Alaskan Natives – National Eagle Repository". Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  219. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1990.1301_63.x
    .
  220. ^ "Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States (1782)". National Archives. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
  221. ^ "Official 1782 Description of America's Great Seal". www.greatseal.com. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
  222. ^ "American Eagle on Great Seal of the United States". www.greatseal.com. Retrieved February 11, 2023.
  223. ^ Mikkelson, Barbara & Mikkelson, David P (November 5, 2001). "A Turn of the Head". snopes.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
  224. ^ "Bald Eagle, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology". AllAboutBirds.org. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  225. ^ "American Heraldry Society | MMM / The Arms of the United States: Benjamin Franklin and the Turkey". Americanheraldry.org. May 18, 2007. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
  226. ^ Jessica Robinson, "Bald Eagle: A Mighty Symbol, With A Not-So-Mighty Voice"; NPR, July 2, 2012; accessed 2019.08.23.

Further reading

Identification

  • Twitching
    1(12): 379–80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white-tailed eagle in juveniles

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Haliaeetus leucocephalus (category)
Wikispecies has information related to the bald eagle.

Video links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bald_eagle&oldid=1218812472"