Baleen whale
Baleen whales Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
Clockwise from top left: humpback whale, gray whale, North Atlantic right whale, and common minke whale | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Infraorder: | Cetacea |
Parvorder: | Mysticeti Cope 1891 |
Subgroups
| |
| |
Diversity | |
16 species | |
Synonyms | |
|
Baleen whales (
Baleen whales range in size from the 6 m (20 ft) and 3,000 kg (6,600 lb)
Although baleen whales are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the
The meat, blubber, baleen, and oil of baleen whales have traditionally been used by the indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Once relentlessly hunted by commercial industries for these products, cetaceans are now protected by international law. These protections have allowed their numbers to recover. However, the North Atlantic right whale is ranked critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Besides hunting, baleen whales also face threats from marine pollution and ocean acidification. It has been speculated that man-made sonar results in strandings. They have rarely been kept in captivity, and this has only been attempted with juveniles or members of one of the smallest species.
Taxonomy
Baleen whales are
Classification
| ||||||||||||||||||
Phylogeny of baleen whales according to a 2019 analysis by McGowen and colleagues,[8] with the Bryde's whale complex expanded following Rosel et al (2021).[7] |
Balaenidae consists of two genera: Eubalaena (right whales) and
Cetotheriidae consists of only one living member: the pygmy right whale (Caperea marginata). The first descriptions date back to the 1840s of bones and
Rorquals consist of three genera (
Etymology
The taxonomic name "Mysticeti" (
Mysticetes are also known as baleen whales for their baleen, which they use to sieve plankton and other small organisms from the water. The term "baleen" (Middle English baleyn, ballayne, ballien, bellane, etc.) is an archaic word for "whale", which came from Old French baleine, derived from the Latin word balæna, derived itself from the Ancient Greek φάλλαινα (phállaina).[20]
Right whales got their name because of whalers preferring them over other species; they were essentially the "right whale" to catch.[21]
Differences between families
Rorquals use throat pleats to expand their mouths, which allow them to feed more effectively. However, rorquals need to build up water pressure in order to expand their mouths, leading to a lunge-feeding behavior. Lunge-feeding is where a whale rams a bait ball (a swarm of small fish) at high speed. Rorquals generally have streamlined physiques to reduce drag in the water while doing this.[22] Balaenids rely on their huge heads, as opposed to the rorquals' throat pleats, to feed effectively. This feeding behavior allows them to grow very big and bulky, without the necessity for a streamlined body. They have
- The "†" signs denote extinct families and genera.
- Parvorder Mysticeti: baleen whales
- †Coronodon
- Family †Aetiocetidae[26]
- †Family Llanocetidae
- †Family Mammalodontidae
- †Family Mystacodontidae
- Clade Chaeomysticeti
- †Horopeta
- †Sitsqwayk
- †Whakakai
- Superfamily Eomysticetoidea
- †Family Cetotheriopsidae
- †Family Eomysticetidae
- Clade Balaenomorpha
- Superfamily Balaenoidea
- Family Balaenidae: right whales and bowhead whale
- Balaena – bowhead whales
- †Balaenella
- †Balaenotus
- †Balaenula
- Eubalaena– right whales
- †Idiocetus
- †Morenocetus
- †Peripolocetus
- Family Balaenidae: right whales and bowhead whale
- Clade Thalassotherii
- †Hibacetus
- †Isocetus
- †Parietobalaena
- †Isanacetus
- †Mauicetus
- †Pinocetus
- †Taikicetus
- †Tiphyocetus
- †Uranocetus
- Family †Aglaocetidae
- †Family Diorocetidae
- †Family Pelocetidae[26]
- †Family Tranatocetidae
- Family Cetotheriidae
- Superfamily Balaenopteroidea
- †Eobalaenoptera
- Family Balaenopteridae: rorquals[28]
Rorqual skeleton with unfused mandibular symphysis (split jaw) clearly visible - †Archaebalaenoptera
- †Archaeschrichtius'
- Balaenoptera
- †Burtinopsis (nomen dubium)[29]
- †Cetotheriophanes
- †Diunatans
- †Eschrichtioides
- Eschrichtius – gray whales
- †Gricetoides
- Megaptera – humpback whale
- †Megapteropsis (nomen dubium)[26]
- †Notiocetus
- †Parabalaenoptera
- †Plesiobalaenoptera
- †Plesiocetus
- †Praemegaptera
- †Protororqualus
- Superfamily Balaenoidea
- incertae sedis
- Amphiptera(existence unconfirmed)
- †Halicetus
- †Imerocetus
- †Mioceta (nomen dubium)[26]
- †Piscocetus
- †Siphonocetus (nomen dubium)[26]
- †Tretulias (nomen dubium)[26]
- †Ulias (nomen dubium)[26]
- Parvorder Mysticeti: baleen whales
Evolutionary history
Molecular phylogeny suggests Mysticeti
The first toothless ancestors of baleen whales appeared before the first
The
The increase in size is likely due to climate change which caused seasonally shifting accumulations of plankton in various parts of the world, necessitating travel over long distances, as well as the ability to feed on large baitballs to make such trips worthwhile.[43] A 2017 analysis of body size based on data from the fossil record and modern baleen whales indicates that the evolution of gigantism in baleen whales occurred rather recently, within the last 3 million years. Before 4.5 million years ago, few baleen whales exceeded 10 meters (33 ft) in length; the two largest Miocene species were less than 13 m (43 ft) in length.[44] The initial evolution of baleen and filter feeding long preceded the evolution of gigantic body size,[45] indicating the evolution of novel feeding mechanisms did not cause the evolution of gigantism. The formation of the Antarctic circumpolar current and its effects on global climate patterns is excluded as being causal for the same reason.[44] Gigantism also was preceded by divergence of different mysticete lineages, meaning multiple lineages arrived at large size independently.[44] It is possible the Plio-Pleistocene increase in seasonally intense upwellings, causing high-prey-density zones, led to gigantism.[44][46]
Anatomy
Motion
When swimming, baleen whales rely on their flippers for locomotion in a wing-like manner similar to penguins and
Rorquals, needing to build speed to feed, have several adaptions for reducing
External anatomy
Baleen whales have two flippers on the front, near the head. Like all mammals, baleen whales breathe air and must surface periodically to do so. Their nostrils, or
Like other mammals, the skin of baleen whales has an
The baleen of baleen whales are keratinous plates. They are made of a calcified, hard α-keratin material, a fiber-reinforced structure made of intermediate filaments (proteins). The degree of calcification varies between species, with the sei whale having 14.5% hydroxyapatite, a mineral that coats teeth and bones, whereas minke whales have 1–4% hydroxyapatite. In most mammals, keratin structures, such as wool, air-dry, but aquatic whales rely on calcium salts to form on the plates to stiffen them.[58] Baleen plates are attached to the upper jaw and are absent in the mid-jaw, forming two separate combs of baleen. The plates decrease in size as they go further back into the jaw; the largest ones are called the "main baleen plates" and the smallest ones are called the "accessory plates". Accessory plates taper off into small hairs.[59]
Unlike other whales (and most other mammals), the females are larger than the males.
Internal systems
The unique lungs of baleen whales are built to collapse under the pressure instead of resisting the pressure which would damage the lungs,
The heart of baleen whales functions similarly to other mammals, with the major difference being the size. The heart can reach 454 kilograms (1,000 lb), but is still proportional to the whale's size. The
When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the
Baleen whales have a relatively small brain
Unlike most animals, whales are conscious breathers. All mammals sleep, but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown. They are believed to exhibit unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, in which they sleep with half of the brain while the other half remains active. This behavior was only documented in toothed whales until footage of a humpback whale sleeping (vertically) was shot in 2014.[73]
It is largely unknown how baleen whales produce sound because of the lack of a
Senses
The eyes of baleen whales are relatively small for their size and are positioned near the end of the mouth. This is probably because they feed on slow or immobile prey, combined with the fact that most sunlight does not pass 9.1 meters (30 ft), and hence they do not need acute vision. A whale's eye is adapted for seeing both in the
The mysticete ear is adapted for hearing underwater, where it can hear sound frequencies as low as 7
Baleen whales have a small, yet functional,
Behavior
Migration
Most species of baleen whale migrate long distances from high latitude waters during spring and summer months to more tropical waters during winter months. This migration cycle is repeated annually.
It is thought that plankton blooms dictate where whales migrate. Many baleen whales feed on the massive plankton blooms that occur in the cold, nutrient-rich waters of polar regions during the sunny spring and summer months. Baleen whales generally then migrate to calving grounds in tropical waters during the winter months when plankton populations are low. Migration is hypothesized to benefit calves in a number of ways. Newborns, born with underdeveloped blubber, would likely otherwise be killed by the cold polar temperatures.
Migratory movements may also reflect seasonally shifting patterns of productivity. California blue whales are hypothesized to migrate between dense patches of prey, moving from central California in the summer and fall, to the Gulf of California in the winter, to the central Baja California Pacific coast in spring.[86]
Foraging
All modern mysticetes are obligate filter feeders, using their baleen to strain small prey items (including small fish, krill, copepods, and zooplankton) from seawater.
There are two types of feeding behaviors: skim-feeding and lunge-feeding,[43] but some species do both depending on the type and amount of food. Lunge-feeders feed primarily on euphausiids (krill), though some lunge feeders also prey on schools of fish.[88] Skim-feeders, like bowhead whales, feed upon primarily smaller plankton such as copepods.[89] They feed alone or in small groups.[90] Baleen whales get the water they need from their food, and their kidneys excrete excess salt.[70]
The lunge-feeders are the rorquals. To feed, lunge-feeders expand the volume of their jaw to a volume bigger than the original volume of the whale itself. To do this, the mouth inflates, which causes the throat pleats to expand, increasing the amount of water that the mouth can store.[52] Just before they ram the baitball, the jaw swings open at almost a 90° angle and bends which lets in more water.[53] To prevent stretching the mouth too far, rorquals have a sensory organ located in the middle of the jaw to regulate these functions.[54] Then they must decelerate. This process takes a lot of mechanical work and is only energy-effective when used against a large baitball.[91] Lunge feeding is more energy-intensive than skim-feeding due to the acceleration and deceleration required.[43]
The skim-feeders are right whales, gray whales, pygmy right whales, and sei whales (which also lunge feed). To feed, skim-feeders swim with an open mouth, filling it with water and prey. Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale's interest, be within a certain size range so that the baleen plates can filter it, and be slow enough so that it cannot escape. The "skimming" may take place on the surface, underwater, or even at the ocean's bottom, indicated by mud occasionally observed on right whales' bodies. Gray whales feed primarily on the ocean's bottom, feeding on benthic creatures.[92]
Foraging efficiency for both lunge feeding and continuous ram filter feeding is highly dependent upon prey density.[91][93][94] The efficiency of a blue whale lunge is approximately 30 times higher at krill densities of 4.5 kg/m3 (0.28 lb/cu ft) than at low krill densities of 0.15 kg/m3 (0.0094 lb/cu ft).[91] Baleen whale have been observed seeking out highly specific areas within the local environment in order to forage at the highest density prey aggregations.[95][86]
Predation and parasitism
Baleen whales, primarily juveniles and calves, are preyed on by killer whales. It is thought that annual whale migration occurs to protect the calves from the killer whales.[85] There have also been reports of a pod of killer whales attacking and killing an adult bowhead whale, by holding down its flippers, covering the blowhole, and ramming and biting until death.[96] Generally, a mother and calf pair, when faced with the threat of a killer whale pod, will either fight or flee. Fleeing only occurs in species that can swim away quickly, the rorquals. Slower whales must fight the pod alone or with a small family group.[97] There has been one report of a shark attacking and killing a whale calf. This occurred in 2014 during the sardine run when a shiver of dusky sharks attacked a humpback whale calf.[98] Usually, the only shark that will attack a whale is the cookiecutter shark, which leaves a small, non-fatal bite mark.[99][100]
Many parasites and epibiotics latch onto whales, notably
Reproduction and development
Before reaching adulthood, baleen whales grow at an extraordinary rate. In the blue whale, the largest species, the fetus grows by some 100 kg (220 lb) per day just before delivery, and by 80 kg (180 lb) per day during suckling. Before weaning, the calf increases its body weight by 17 t (17 long tons; 19 short tons) and grows from 7 to 8 m (23 to 26 ft) at birth to 13 to 16 m (43 to 52 ft) long. When it reaches
Most rorquals mate in warm waters in winter to give birth almost a year later.[82] A 7-to-11 month lactation period is normally followed by a year of rest before mating starts again. Adults normally start reproducing when 5–10 years old and reach their full length after 20–30 years.[106][107][108] In the smallest rorqual, the minke whale, 3 m (10 ft) calves are born after a 10-month pregnancy and weaning lasts until it has reached about 5 to 5.5 m (16 to 18 ft) after 6–7 months.[109] Unusual for a baleen whale, female minkes (and humpbacks) can become pregnant immediately after giving birth; in most species, there is a two-to-three-year calving period. In right whales, the calving interval is usually three years. They grow very rapidly during their first year, after which they hardly increase in size for several years.[110][111] They reach sexual maturity when 13 to 14 m (43 to 46 ft) long. Baleen whales are K-strategists, meaning they raise one calf at a time, have a long life-expectancy, and a low infant mortality rate.[112] Some 19th century harpoons found in harvested bowheads indicate this species can live more than 100 years.[113] Baleen whales are promiscuous, with none showing pair bonds.[114] They are polygynous, in that a male may mate with more than one female. The scars on male whales suggest they fight for the right to mate with females during breeding season, somewhat similar to lek mating.[115]
Baleen whales have fibroelastic (connective tissue) penises, similar to those of artiodactyls. The tip of the penis, which tapers toward the end, is called the pars intrapraeputialis or terminal cone.
Whale song
All baleen whales use sound for communication and are known to "sing", especially during the breeding season. Blue whales produce the loudest sustained sounds of any animals: their low-frequency (infrasonic, under 20 Hz) moans can last for half a minute, reach almost 190 decibels, and be heard hundreds of kilometers away. Adult male humpbacks produce the longest and most complex songs; sequences of moans, groans, roars, sighs, and chirps sometimes lasting more than ten minutes are repeated for hours. Typically, all humpback males in a population sing the same song over a breeding season, but the songs change slightly between seasons, and males in one population have been observed adapting the song from males of a neighboring population over a few breeding seasons.[120]
Intelligence
Unlike their toothed whale counterparts, baleen whales are hard to study because of their immense size. Intelligence tests such as the
Relationship with humans
History of whaling
Whaling by humans has existed since the
Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Whaling was at that time a sizable European industry with ships from Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic.
Notwithstanding the other provisions of paragraph 10, catch limits for the killing for commercial purposes of whales from all stocks for the 1986 coastal and the 1985/86 pelagic seasons and thereafter shall be zero. This provision will be kept under review, based upon the best scientific advice, and by 1990 at the latest the Commission will undertake a comprehensive assessment of the effects of this decision on whale stocks and consider modification of this provision and the establishment of other catch limits.
Conservation and management issues
As of 2021, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recognizes 15 mysticete species (while not yet officially recognizing Rice's whale as a species, it still gives it a conservation status as a distinct population segment). Two species—the North Atlantic right whale (with only around 366 individuals left) and Rice's whale (with less than 100 individuals left)—are considered critically endangered. Three more are classified as endangered (the North Pacific right whale, the blue whale, and the sei whale), one as vulnerable (the fin whale), one as near-threatened (Antarctic minke whale), and one as data deficient (Omura's whale).[132] Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of ongoing climate change, particularly declines in sea ice, as well as ocean acidification.[133]
The
Commercial whaling was historically important for the world economy. All species were exploited, and as one type's stock depleted, another type was targeted. The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially through the 1960s as all whale stocks had been depleted, and practically stopped in 1988 after the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which banned whaling for commercial use.
Baleen whales continue to be harvested. Only three nations take whales: Iceland, Norway, and Japan. All these nations are part of the IWC, with Norway and Iceland rejecting the moratorium and continuing commercial whaling.[140] Japan, being part of the IWC, whales under the Scientific Permit stated in Article VIII in the Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, which allows the taking of whales for scientific research.[141] Japan has had two main research programs: the Joint Aquatic Resources Permit Application (JARPA) and the Japanese Research Program in the North (JARPN). JARPN is focused in the North Pacific and JARPA around the Antarctic. JARPA mainly caught Antarctic minke whales, catching nearly 7,000; to a far lesser extent, they also caught fin whales.[142] Animal-rights activist groups, such as the Greenpeace,[143] object to Japan's scientific whaling, with some calling it a substitute for commercial whaling.[144] In 2014, the International Court of Justice (the UN judicial branch) banned the taking of whales for any purpose in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary;[145] however, Japan refuses to stop whaling and has only promised to cut their annual catches by a third (around 300 whales per year).[146]
Baleen whales can also be affected by humans in more indirect ways. For species like the North Atlantic right whale, which migrates through some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, the biggest threat is from being struck by ships. The Lloyd's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface, where most accidents occur. Combined with spreading and acoustic shadowing effects, the result is that the whale is unable to hear an approaching vessel before it has been run over or entrapped by the hydrodynamic forces of the vessel's passage.[147] A 2014 study noted that a lower vessel speed correlated with lower collision rates.[148] The ever-increasing amount of ocean noise, including sonar, drowns out the vocalizations produced by whales, notably in the blue whale which produces the loudest vocalization, which makes it harder for them to communicate.[149][150] Blue whales stop producing foraging D calls once a mid-frequency sonar is activated, even though the sonar frequency range (1–8 kHz) far exceeds their sound production range (25–100 Hz).[149]
Poisoning from toxic substances such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) is generally low because of their low trophic level.[151] However, oil spills can be a significant threat, especially to small populations; the already endangered Rice's whale was likely devastated by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, with some estimates indicating a decline of up to 22% in the species.[152]
Some baleen whales can become victims of bycatch, which is especially serious for North Atlantic right whales considering their small number.[153] Right whales feed with a wide-open mouth, risking entanglement in any rope or net fixed in the water column. The rope wraps around their upper jaw, flippers and tail. Some are able to escape, but others remain entangled. If observers notice, they can be successfully disentangled, but others die over a period of months. Other whales, such as humpback whales, can also be entangled.[154]
In captivity
Baleen whales have rarely been kept in captivity. Their large size and appetite make them expensive creatures to maintain. Pools of proper size would also be very expensive to build. For example, a single gray whale calf would need to eat 215 kilograms (475 lb) of fish per day, and the pool would have to accommodate the 4-meter (13 ft) calf, along with ample room to swim.
The Mito Aquarium in
References
Citations
- ISBN 978-1-4008-8314-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4299-8777-6.
- S2CID 14231425.
- ^ Crane, J.; Scott, R. (2002). "Eubalaena glacialis: North Atlantic right whale: Information". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-89599-014-3.
- PMID 9159931.
- ^ S2CID 234256521.
- S2CID 225003187.
- S2CID 7166876.
- OCLC 681455766.
- ^ Bannister 2008, pp. 939–941.
- PMID 23256199.
- PMID 22226162.
- S2CID 24684836.
- PMID 16330660.
- PMID 15805012.
- PMID 29632892.
- ^ a b Bannister 2008, pp. 80–81.
- ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2.
- ISBN 978-0-393-06057-7.
- PMID 19158011.
- ^ a b Bannister 2008, p. 80.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-12-389180-8.
- ^ S2CID 24684836.
- ^ PMID 27019734.
- ^ S2CID 90231.
- S2CID 83913241.
- ISBN 978-1-4398-4257-7.
- .
- S2CID 21680283.
- PMID 18266181.
- ISBN 978-0-7637-6299-5.
- S2CID 54145119.
- ^ a b Uhen 2010, pp. 208–210
- PMID 21849306.
- hdl:10088/22502.
- PMID 17015308.
- ^ Bannister 2008, p. 214.
- PMID 20525610.
- PMID 28539520.
- ^ PMID 27620830.
- ^ PMID 28539520.
- S2CID 38159932.
- S2CID 3179052.
- ^ Bannister 2008, p. 1140.
- ^ Bannister 2008, p. 80.
- ^ Feldhamer 2015, p. 446.
- PMID 25186496.
- S2CID 206152894.
- ^ S2CID 15963380.
- ^ doi:10.1511/2010.83.124.
- ^ S2CID 1200222.
- ^ Tinker 1988, p. 66.
- ^ Tinker 1988, p. 50.
- ^ Tinker 1988, p. 51.
- PMID 20392736.
- ^ Bannister 2008, p. 1007.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-76555-8.
- doi:10.3354/meps187309.
- PMID 10936758.
- ISBN 978-0-7167-6203-4.
- ^ a b Tinker 1988, p. 69.
- ISBN 978-0-8243-0348-8.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, p. 99.
- ^ Tinker 1988, p. 70.
- ISBN 978-0-7817-5007-3.
- ^ a b Cavendish 2010, p. 101.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, pp. 93–94.
- ISBN 978-1-4128-5187-9.
- ^ Mosbergen, Dominique (2014). "Sleeping Humpback Whale Captured In Rare Footage". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
- S2CID 24620936.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, p. 95.
- ^ "Appendix H: Marine Mammal Hearing and Sensitivity to Acoustic Impacts" (PDF). Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS. p. H-4, § Hearing in Mysticete Cetaceans.
- S2CID 233517623.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, p. 96.
- PMID 22488847.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, p. 94.
- PMID 24803572.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-23274-6.
- ^ Lee, Jane J. (2015). "A Gray Whale Breaks The Record For Longest Mammal Migration". National Geographic. Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
- ^ a b Bannister 2008, pp. 357–361.
- ^ JSTOR 24867995.
- PMID 26393325.
- PMID 20816685.
- JSTOR 24871544.
- ISBN 978-0-520-01397-1.
- ^ a b c Goldbogen et al. 2011, pp. 131–146.
- ^ Bannister 2008, pp. 806–813.
- PMID 28399142.
- ISSN 1748-7692.
- ISSN 0171-8630.
- PMID 22520955.
- .
- doi:10.1071/MF14317.
- ^ Martin, R.A. "Squaliformes Dogfish Sharks". ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
- ^ a b Bannister 2008, p. 85.
- ^ Feldhamer 2015, p. 457.
- PMID 17148335.
- ISBN 978-1-55143-114-7.
- PMID 23594428.
- ^ Bannister 2008, pp. 86–87.
- ^ W. Rice, D. (1977). "Synopsis of biological data on the sei whale and Bryde's whale in the eastern North Pacific". Report of the International Whaling Commission. Special Issue 1: 92–97.
- doi:10.1139/z87-040.
- ^ Ohsumi, S. (1977). "Bryde's whales in the pelagic whaling ground of the North Pacific". Report of the International Whaling Commission: 140–9.
- ISBN 978-0-8493-6069-5.
- S2CID 86306680.
- doi:10.1139/z94-173.
- ISBN 978-0-85404-157-2.
- ^ Leigh Haag, Amanda (2007). "Patented harpoon pins down whale age". Nature (journal). Retrieved 6 January 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-520-27057-2.
- ISBN 978-0-306-46573-4.
- ^ Cavendish 2010, p. 102.
- ISBN 978-1-910561-02-7.
the longest penis belongs to the blue whale at up to 2.4 m (8 ft)
- ^ Anitei, Stefan (2007). "The Largest Penis in the World – Both for humans and animals, size does matter". Softpedia. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-7416-1.
- ^ Bannister 2008, pp. 85–86.
- S2CID 6876656.
- ^ "Rock art hints at whaling origins". BBC News. 2004. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
Stone Age people may have started hunting whales as early as 6,000 BC, new evidence from South Korea suggests.
- ^ a b c d Marrero, Meghan E.; Thornton, Stuart (2011). "Big Fish: A Brief History of Whaling". National Geographic. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
- ^ Ford, Catherine (2015). "A Savage History: Whaling in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans". The Monthly. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
- ISSN 0821-1027.
- ^ "Whale products". New Bedford Whaling Museum. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
- ^ Stonehouse, Bernard (2007). "British Arctic whaling: an overview". University of Hull. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
- ISBN 978-0-393-04917-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7637-7350-2.
- ^ International Whaling Commission Schedule, paragraph 10(e). International Whaling Commission.
- ^ "Keyword search: Baleen whales". The IUCN Red List of Threatened species. Version 2013.1. IUCN. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ Elliot, Wendy (2007). Whales in Hot Water? (PDF). World Wildlife Fund. pp. 9–10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-05.
- ^ Black, Richard (2009). "Whale watching 'worth billions'". BBC News. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- JSTOR 40465273.
- ^ O'Connor, S.; Campbell, R.; Cortez, H.; Knowles, T. (2009). "Whale Watching and Whaling". Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits (PDF) (Report). International Fund for Animal Welfare. pp. 9–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-08. Retrieved 2016-11-15.
- ^ Clifford, Frank (1994). "Gray Whale Removed From Endangered List". LA Times. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-9841686-5-1.
- ^ "IUCN Species of the Day: North Atlantic Right Whale". Bush Warriors. 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- ^ "Commercial Whaling". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
- ^ "Scientific Permit Whaling". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ISBN 978-90-04-26258-4.
- ^ "Japan and whaling". Greenpeace International. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- S2CID 4304077.
- ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko; Simons, Marlise (2014). "U.N. Court Orders Japan to Halt Whaling Off Antarctica". NY Times. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ "Japan to resume whaling in Antarctic despite court ruling". BBC News. Associated Press. 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- .
- PMID 24949229.
- ^ PMID 22393434.
- ^ Reeves, Randal R.; Clapham, P.J. L.; Brownell, R.; K., Silber G. (1998). Recovery plan for the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) (PDF). National Marine Fisheries Service. p. 42.
- PMID 7973606.
- ^ Group), Randall Reeves (IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist; Corkeron, Peter; Rosel, Patty (2017-06-28). "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Balaenoptera edeni Gulf of Mexico subpopulation". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
- ^ "North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis)". Office of Protected Resources. NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ "Cetaceans" (PDF). Entanglement of Marine Species in Marine Debris with an Emphasis on Species in the United States. NOAA Marine Debris Report. 2014. pp. 9–10.
- ^ Perry, Tony (1998). "J.J. The Gray Whale Going To Sea – Rescued Orphan Calf Will Be Freed This Week". Seattle Times. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ Sumich, J. L.; Goff, T.; Perryman, W. L. (2001). "Growth of two captive gray whale calves" (PDF). Aquatic Mammals. 27 (3): 231–233. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
- ^ Perry, Tony (1998). "Rescued Whale J.J. Begins Long Journey Home". LA Times. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ Kimura, S.; Nemoto, T. (1956). "Note on a minke whale kept alive in aquarium". Scientific Reports of the Whales Research Institute. 11: 181–189.
Works cited
- Bannister, John L. (2008). "Baleen Whales (Mysticetes)". In F. Perrin, William; Würsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J. G. M. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (2 ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9.
- Cavendish, Marshall (2010). "Gray whale". Mammal Anatomy: An Illustrated Guide. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. ISBN 978-0-7614-7882-9.
- OCLC 31419733.
- Feldhamer, George A.; Drickamer, Lee; Vessey, Stephen C.; Merritt, Joseph H.; Krajewski, Carey F. (2015). "Cetacea". Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1588-8.
- Goldbogen, J. A.; Calambokidis, J.; Oleson, E.; Potvin, J.; Pyenson, N. D.; Schorr, G.; Shadwick, R. E. (2011). "Mechanics, hydrodynamics and energetics of blue whale lunge feeding: efficiency dependence on krill density". Journal of Experimental Biology. 214 (Pt 1): 131–146. S2CID 12100333.
- Rice, Dale W. (1998). "Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution". Society for Marine Mammalogy: 1–231. OCLC 40622084.
- Tinker, Spencer W. (1988). Whales of the World. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-0-935848-47-2.
- Uhen, M. D. (2010). "The Origin(s) of Whales". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 38 (1): 189–219. .