Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea region | |
---|---|
Settlements | Copenhagen, Gdańsk, Gdynia, Greifswald, Haapsalu, Helsinki, Jūrmala, Kaliningrad, Kiel, Klaipėda, Kuressaare, Kärdla, Lübeck, Luleå, Mariehamn, Oulu, Palanga, Paldiski, Pärnu, Riga, Rostock, Saint Petersburg, Liepāja, Stockholm, Tallinn, Turku, Ventspils |
References | [2] |
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure. |
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude. It is a
The "Baltic Proper" is bordered on its northern edge, at latitude 60°N, by Åland and the Gulf of Bothnia, on its northeastern edge by the Gulf of Finland, on its eastern edge by the Gulf of Riga, and in the west by the Swedish part of the southern Scandinavian Peninsula.
The Baltic Sea is connected by artificial waterways to the White Sea via the White Sea–Baltic Canal and to the German Bight of the North Sea via the Kiel Canal.
Definitions
Administration
The Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area includes the Baltic Sea and the Kattegat, without calling Kattegat a part of the Baltic Sea, "For the purposes of this Convention the 'Baltic Sea Area' shall be the Baltic Sea and the Entrance to the Baltic Sea, bounded by the parallel of the Skaw in the Skagerrak at 57°44.43'N."[3]
Traffic history
Historically, the
Oceanography
Geographers widely agree that the preferred physical border between the Baltic and North Seas is the Langelandsbælt (the southern part of the
Hydrography and biology
The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology. The remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen, and in species. Thus, statistically, the more of the entrance that is included in its definition, the healthier the Baltic appears; conversely, the more narrowly it is defined, the more endangered its biology appears.
Etymology and nomenclature
He might also have been influenced by the name of a legendary island mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. Pliny mentions an island named Baltia (or Balcia) with reference to accounts of Pytheas and Xenophon. It is possible that Pliny refers to an island named Basilia ("the royal") in On the Ocean by Pytheas. Baltia also might be derived from "belt", and therein mean "near belt of sea, strait".
Others have suggested that the name of the island originates from the
In the Middle Ages the sea was known by a variety of names. The name Baltic Sea became dominant only after 1600. Usage of Baltic and similar terms to denote the region east of the sea started only in the 19th century.
Name in other languages
The Baltic Sea was known in ancient Latin language sources as Mare Suebicum or even Mare Germanicum.[15] Older native names in languages that used to be spoken on the shores of the sea or near it usually indicate the geographical location of the sea (in Germanic languages), or its size in relation to smaller gulfs (in Old Latvian), or tribes associated with it (in Old Russian the sea was known as the Varanghian Sea). In modern languages, it is known by the equivalents of "East Sea", "West Sea", or "Baltic Sea" in different languages:
- "Baltic Sea" is used in Modern English; in the Russian (Балтийское море Baltiyskoye More) and Serbo-Croatian (Baltičko more / Балтичко море); in Hungarian(Balti-tenger).
- In Germanic languages, except English, "East Sea" is used, as in Afrikaans (Oossee), Danish (Østersøen [ˈøstɐˌsøˀn̩]), Dutch (Oostzee), German (Ostsee), Low German (Oostsee), Icelandic and Faroese (Eystrasalt), Norwegian (Bokmål: Østersjøen [ˈø̂stəˌʂøːn]; Nynorsk: Austersjøen), and Swedish (Östersjön). In Old English it was known as Ostsǣ; also in Hungarian the former name was Keleti-tenger ("East-sea", due to German influence). In addition, Finnish, a Finnic language, uses the term Itämeri "East Sea", possibly a calque from a Germanic language. As the Baltic is not particularly eastward in relation to Finland, the use of this term may be a leftover from the period of Swedish rule.
- In another Finnic language, Estonian, it is called the "West Sea" (Läänemeri), with the correct geography (the sea is west of Estonia). In South Estonian, it has the meaning of both "West Sea" and "Evening Sea" (Õdagumeri). In the endangered Livonian language of Latvia, the sea (and sometimes the Irbe Strait as well) is called the "Large Sea" (Sūŗ meŗ or Sūr meŗ).[16][17]
History
Classical world
At the time of the
Middle Ages
In the early Middle Ages, Norse (Scandinavian) merchants built a trade empire all around the Baltic. Later, the Norse fought for control of the Baltic against Wendish tribes dwelling on the southern shore. The Norse also used the rivers of Russia for trade routes, finding their way eventually to the Black Sea and southern Russia. This Norse-dominated period is referred to as the Viking Age.
Since the Viking Age, the Scandinavians have referred to the Baltic Sea as Austmarr ("Eastern Lake"). "Eastern Sea", appears in the Heimskringla and Eystra salt appears in Sörla þáttr. Saxo Grammaticus recorded in Gesta Danorum an older name, Gandvik, -vik being Old Norse for "bay", which implies that the Vikings correctly regarded it as an inlet of the sea. Another form of the name, "Grandvik", attested in at least one English translation of Gesta Danorum, is likely to be a misspelling.
In addition to fish the sea also provides amber, especially from its southern shores within today's borders of Poland, Russia and Lithuania. First mentions of amber deposits on the South Coast of the Baltic Sea date back to the 12th century.[18] The bordering countries have also traditionally exported lumber, wood tar, flax, hemp and furs by ship across the Baltic. Sweden had from early medieval times exported iron and silver mined there, while Poland had and still has extensive salt mines. Thus, the Baltic Sea has long been crossed by much merchant shipping.
The lands on the Baltic's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted to
An arena of conflict
In the period between the 8th and 14th centuries, there was much piracy in the Baltic from the coasts of Pomerania and Prussia, and the Victual Brothers held Gotland.
Starting in the 11th century, the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic were settled by migrants mainly from Germany, a movement called the Ostsiedlung ("east settling"). Other settlers were from the Netherlands, Denmark, and Scotland. The Polabian Slavs were gradually assimilated by the Germans.[19] Denmark gradually gained control over most of the Baltic coast, until she lost much of her possessions after being defeated in the 1227 Battle of Bornhöved.
In the 13th to 16th centuries, the strongest economic force in Northern Europe was the Hanseatic League, a federation of merchant cities around the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden fought wars for Dominium maris baltici ("Lordship over the Baltic Sea"). Eventually, it was Sweden that virtually encompassed the Baltic Sea. In Sweden, the sea was then referred to as Mare Nostrum Balticum ("Our Baltic Sea"). The goal of Swedish warfare during the 17th century was to make the Baltic Sea an all-Swedish sea (Ett Svenskt innanhav), something that was accomplished except the part between Riga in Latvia and Stettin in Pomerania. However, the Dutch dominated the Baltic trade in the seventeenth century.
In the eighteenth century,
During the
After the Nazis' rise to power, Germany reclaimed the
Since World War II
Since the end of
After 1945, the
Winter storms begin arriving in the region during October. These have caused numerous
Storm floods
Storm surge floods are generally taken to occur when the water level is more than one metre above normal. In Warnemünde about 110 floods occurred from 1950 to 2000, an average of just over two per year.[25]
Historic flood events were the
Geography
Geophysical data
An arm of the
It is about 1,600 km (990 mi) long, an average of 193 km (120 mi) wide, and an average of 55 metres (180 ft) deep. The maximum depth is 459 m (1,506 ft) which is on the Swedish side of the center. The surface area is about 349,644 km2 (134,998 sq mi) [28] and the volume is about 20,000 km3 (4,800 cu mi). The periphery amounts to about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) of coastline.[29]
The Baltic Sea is one of the largest brackish inland seas by area, and occupies a basin (a Zungenbecken) formed by glacial erosion during the last few ice ages.
Sub-area | Area | Volume | Maximum depth | Average depth |
---|---|---|---|---|
km2 | km3 | m | m | |
Baltic proper | 211,069 | 13,045 | 459 | 62.1 |
Gulf of Bothnia | 115,516 | 6,389 | 230 | 60.2 |
Gulf of Finland | 29,600 | 1,100 | 123 | 38.0 |
Gulf of Riga | 16,300 | 424 | > 60 | 26.0 |
Belt Sea/Kattegat | 42,408 | 802 | 109 | 18.9 |
Total Baltic Sea | 415,266 | 21,721 | 459 | 52.3 |
Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Baltic Sea as follows:[31]
- Bordered by the coasts of Germany, Denmark, Poland, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, it extends north-eastward of the following limits:
- In the Little Belt. A line joining Falshöft (54°47′N 9°57.5′E / 54.783°N 9.9583°E) and Vejsnæs Nakke (Ærø: 54°49′N 10°26′E / 54.817°N 10.433°E).
- In the Great Belt. A line joining Gulstav (South extreme of Langeland Island) and Kappel Kirke (54°46′N 11°01′E / 54.767°N 11.017°E) on Island of Lolland.
- In the Guldborg Sound. A line joining Flinthorne-Rev and Skjelby (54°38′N 11°53′E / 54.633°N 11.883°E).
- In the Sound. A line joining Stevns Lighthouse (55°17′N 12°27′E / 55.283°N 12.450°E) and Falsterbo Point (55°23′N 12°49′E / 55.383°N 12.817°E).
Subdivisions
The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the Gulf of Bothnia, of which the northernmost part is the Bay of Bothnia or Bothnian Bay. The more rounded southern basin of the gulf is called Bothnian Sea and immediately to the south of it lies the Sea of Åland. The Gulf of Finland connects the Baltic Sea with Saint Petersburg. The Gulf of Riga lies between the Latvian capital city of Riga and the Estonian island of Saaremaa.
The Northern Baltic Sea lies between the
In the south, the
Temperature and ice
The water temperature of the Baltic Sea varies significantly depending on exact location, season and depth. At the Bornholm Basin, which is located directly east of the island of the same name, the surface temperature typically falls to 0–5 °C (32–41 °F) during the peak of the winter and rises to 15–20 °C (59–68 °F) during the peak of the summer, with an annual average of around 9–10 °C (48–50 °F).[33] A similar pattern can be seen in the Gotland Basin, which is located between the island of Gotland and Latvia. In the deep of these basins the temperature variations are smaller. At the bottom of the Bornholm Basin, deeper than 80 m (260 ft), the temperature typically is 1–10 °C (34–50 °F), and at the bottom of the Gotland Basin, at depths greater than 225 m (738 ft), the temperature typically is 4–7 °C (39–45 °F).[33] Generally, offshore locations, lower latitudes and islands maintain maritime climates, but adjacent to the water continental climates are common, especially on the Gulf of Finland. In the northern tributaries the climates transition from moderate continental to subarctic on the northernmost coastlines.
On the long-term average, the Baltic Sea is ice-covered at the annual maximum for about 45% of its surface area. The ice-covered area during such a typical winter includes the
Freezing begins in the northern extremities of the Gulf of Bothnia typically in the middle of November, reaching the open waters of the Bothnian Bay in early January. The Bothnian Sea, the basin south of Kvarken, freezes on average in late February. The Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Riga freeze typically in late January. In 2011, the Gulf of Finland was completely frozen on 15 February.[34]
The ice extent depends on whether the winter is mild, moderate, or severe. In severe winters ice can form around southern Sweden and even in the Danish straits. According to the 18th-century natural historian William Derham, during the severe winters of 1703 and 1708, the ice cover reached as far as the Danish straits.[35] Frequently, parts of the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland are frozen, in addition to coastal fringes in more southerly locations such as the Gulf of Riga. This description meant that the whole of the Baltic Sea was covered with ice.
Since 1720, the Baltic Sea has frozen over entirely 20 times, most recently in early 1987, which was the most severe winter in Scandinavia since 1720. The ice then covered 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi). During the winter of 2010–11, which was quite severe compared to those of the last decades, the maximum ice cover was 315,000 km2 (122,000 sq mi), which was reached on 25 February 2011. The ice then extended from the north down to the northern tip of Gotland, with small ice-free areas on either side, and the east coast of the Baltic Sea was covered by an ice sheet about 25 to 100 km (16 to 62 mi) wide all the way to Gdańsk. This was brought about by a stagnant high-pressure area that lingered over central and northern Scandinavia from around 10 to 24 February. After this, strong southern winds pushed the ice further into the north, and much of the waters north of Gotland were again free of ice, which had then packed against the shores of southern Finland.[36] The effects of the afore-mentioned high-pressure area did not reach the southern parts of the Baltic Sea, and thus the entire sea did not freeze over. However, floating ice was additionally observed near Świnoujście harbor in January 2010.
In recent years before 2011, the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea were frozen with solid ice near the Baltic coast and dense floating ice far from it. In 2008, almost no ice formed except for a short period in March.[37]
During winter,
In spring, the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia normally thaw in late April, with some ice ridges persisting until May in the eastern extremities of the Gulf of Finland. In the northernmost reaches of the Bothnian Bay, ice usually stays until late May; by early June it is practically always gone. However, in the famine year of
The ice cover is the main habitat for two large mammals, the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the Baltic ringed seal (Pusa hispida botnica), both of which feed underneath the ice and breed on its surface. Of these two seals, only the Baltic ringed seal suffers when there is not adequate ice in the Baltic Sea, as it feeds its young only while on ice. The grey seal is adapted to reproducing also with no ice in the sea. The sea ice also harbors several species of algae that live in the bottom and inside unfrozen brine pockets in the ice.
Due to the often fluctuating winter temperatures between above and below freezing, the saltwater ice of the Baltic Sea can be treacherous and hazardous to walk on, in particular in comparison to the more stable fresh water-ice sheets in the interior lakes.
Hydrography
The Baltic Sea flows out through the Danish straits; however, the flow is complex. A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 km3 (230 cu mi) per year into the North Sea. Due to the difference in salinity, by salinity permeation principle, a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 km3 (114 cu mi) per year. It mixes very slowly with the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the saltwater remaining below 40 to 70 m (130 to 230 ft) deep. The general circulation is anti-clockwise: northwards along its eastern boundary, and south along with the western one .[42]
The difference between the outflow and the inflow comes entirely from fresh
An important source of salty water is infrequent inflows (also known as
The water level is generally far more dependent on the regional wind situation than on tidal effects. However, tidal currents occur in narrow passages in the western parts of the Baltic Sea. Tides can reach 17 to 19 cm (6.7 to 7.5 in) in the Gulf of Finland.[45]
The significant wave height is generally much lower than that of the North Sea. Quite violent, sudden storms sweep the surface ten or more times a year, due to large transient temperature differences and a long reach of the wind. Seasonal winds also cause small changes in sea level, of the order of 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) .[42] According to the media, during a storm in January 2017, an extreme wave above 14 m (46 ft) has been measured and significant wave height of around 8 m (26 ft) has been measured by the FMI. A numerical study has shown the presence of events with 8 to 10 m (26 to 33 ft) significant wave heights. Those extreme waves events can play an important role in the coastal zone on erosion and sea dynamics.[46]
Salinity
The Baltic Sea is the world's largest inland
The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land (rivers, streams and alike), combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about 21,000 km3 (5,000 cu mi) and yearly runoff is about 500 km3 (120 cu mi).[citation needed]
The open surface waters of the Baltic Sea "proper" generally have a salinity of 0.3 to 0.9%, which is border-line
As saltwater is denser than freshwater, the bottom of the Baltic Sea is saltier than the surface. This creates a vertical stratification of the water column, a halocline, that represents a barrier to the exchange of oxygen and nutrients, and fosters completely separate maritime environments.[49] The difference between the bottom and surface salinities varies depending on location. Overall it follows the same southwest to east and north pattern as the surface. At the bottom of the Arkona Basin (equalling depths greater than 40 m or 130 ft) and Bornholm Basin (depths greater than 80 m or 260 ft) it is typically 1.4–1.8%. Further east and north the salinity at the bottom is consistently lower, being the lowest in Bothnian Bay (depths greater than 120 m or 390 ft) where it is slightly below 0.4%, or only marginally higher than the surface in the same region.[48]
In contrast, the salinity of the
Major tributaries
The rating of mean discharges differs from the ranking of hydrological lengths (from the most distant source to the sea) and the rating of the nominal lengths. Göta älv, a tributary of the Kattegat, is not listed, as due to the northward upper low-salinity-flow in the sea, its water hardly reaches the Baltic proper:
Name | Mean Discharge (m3/s) |
Length (km) | Basin (km2) | States sharing the basin | Longest watercourse |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neva | 2500 | 74 (nominal) 860 (hydrological) |
281,000 | Russia, Finland (Ladoga-affluent Vuoksi) | Svir (224 km) → Lake Ladoga (122 km) → Neva
|
Vistula | 1080 | 1047 | 194,424 | Poland, tributaries: Belarus, Ukraine, Slovakia | Bug (774 km) → Narew (22 km) → Vistula (156 km) total 1204 km |
Daugava |
678 | 1020 | 87,900 | Russia (source), Belarus, Latvia | |
Neman |
678 | 937 | 98,200 | Belarus (source), Lithuania, Russia | |
Kemijoki | 556 | 550 (main river) 600 (river system) |
51,127 | Finland, Norway (source of Ounasjoki) | longer tributary Kitinen |
Oder | 540 | 866 | 118,861 | Czech Republic (source), Poland, Germany | Warta (808 km) → Oder (180 km) total: 928 km |
Lule älv |
506 | 461 | 25,240 | Sweden | |
Narva |
415 | 77 (nominal) 652 (hydrological) |
56,200 | Russia (Source of Velikaya), Estonia | Velikaya (430 km) → Lake Peipus (145 km) → Narva
|
Torne älv |
388 | 520 (nominal) 630 (hydrological) |
40,131 | Norway (source), Sweden, Finland | Válfojohka → Kamajåkka → Abiskojaure → Abiskojokk (total 40 km) → Torneträsk (70 km) → Torne älv |
Islands and archipelagoes
- autonomous)
- Archipelago Sea (Finland)
- Blekinge archipelago (Sweden)
- Christiansø (Denmark)
- Falster (Denmark)
- Gotland (Sweden)
- Hailuoto (Finland)
- Kotlin (Russia)
- Lolland (Denmark)
- Kvarken archipelago, including Valsörarna (Finland)
- Møn (Denmark)
- Öland (Sweden)
- Rügen (Germany)
- Stockholm archipelago (Sweden)
- Värmdön (Sweden)
- Usedom or Uznam (split between Germany and Poland)
- West Estonian archipelago (Estonia):
- Wolin (Poland)
- Zealand (Denmark)
Coastal countries
Countries that border the sea: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden.
Countries lands in the outer drainage basin: Belarus, Czech Republic, Norway, Slovakia, Ukraine.
The Baltic Sea drainage basin is roughly four times the surface area of the sea itself. About 48% of the region is forested, with Sweden and Finland containing the majority of the forest, especially around the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
About 20% of the land is used for agriculture and pasture, mainly in Poland and around the edge of the Baltic Proper, in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. About 17% of the basin is unused open land with another 8% of wetlands. Most of the latter are in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.
The rest of the land is heavily populated. About 85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin, 15 million within 10 km (6 mi) of the coast and 29 million within 50 km (31 mi) of the coast. Around 22 million live in population centers of over 250,000. 90% of these are concentrated in the 10 km (6 mi) band around the coast. Of the nations containing all or part of the basin, Poland includes 45% of the 85 million, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% and the others less than 6% each.[51]
Cities
The biggest coastal cities (by population):
- Saint Petersburg (Russia) 5,392,992 (metropolitan area 6,000,000)
- Stockholm (Sweden) 962,154 (metropolitan area 2,315,612)
- Helsinki (Finland) 665,558 (metropolitan area 1,559,558)
- Riga (Latvia) 614,618 (metropolitan area 1,070,00)
- Gdańsk (Poland) 462,700 (metropolitan area 1,041,000)
- Tallinn (Estonia) 458,398 (metropolitan area 542,983)
- Kaliningrad (Russia) 431,500
- Szczecin (Poland) 413,600 (metropolitan area 778,000)
- Espoo (Finland) 306,792 (part of Helsinki metropolitan area)
- Gdynia (Poland) 255,600 (metropolitan area 1,041,000)
- Kiel (Germany) 247,000[52]
- Lübeck (Germany) 216,100
- Rostock (Germany) 212,700
- Klaipėda (Lithuania) 194,400
- Oulu (Finland) 191,050
- Turku (Finland) 180,350
Other important ports:
- Estonia:
- Finland:
- Germany:
- Flensburg 94,000
- Stralsund 58,000
- Greifswald 55,000
- Wismar 44,000
- Eckernförde 22,000
- Neustadt in Holstein 16,000
- Wolgast 12,000
- Sassnitz 10,000
- Latvia:
- Lithuania:
- Palanga 17,000
- Poland:
- Kołobrzeg 44,800
- Świnoujście 41,500
- Police 34,284
- Władysławowo 15,000
- Darłowo 14,000
- Russia:
- Sweden:
- Norrköping 84,000
- Gävle 75,451
- Trelleborg 26,000
- Karlshamn 19,000
- Oxelösund 11,000
Geology
Evolution of the Baltic Sea |
---|
Pleistocene |
Eemian Sea (130,000–115,000 BC) Ice sheets and seas (115,000–12,600 BC) |
Holocene |
Baltic Ice Lake (12,600–10,300 BC) Yoldia Sea (10,300–9,500 BC) Ancylus Lake (9,500–8,000 BC) Mastogloia Sea (8,000–7,500 BC) Littorina Sea (7,500–4,000 BC) Modern Baltic Sea (4,000 BC–present) |
The Baltic Sea somewhat resembles a
From that time the waters underwent a geologic history summarized under the names listed below. Many of the stages are named after marine animals (e.g. the
The factors that determined the sea's characteristics were the submergence or emergence of the region due to the weight of ice and subsequent isostatic readjustment, and the connecting channels it found to the
- years ago)
- Baltic Ice Lake, 12,600–10,300
- Yoldia Sea, 10,300–9500
- Ancylus Lake, 9,500–8,000
- Mastogloia Sea, 8,000–7,500
- Littorina Sea, 7,500–4,000
- Post-Littorina Sea, 4,000–present
The land is still emerging isostatically from its depressed state, which was caused by the weight of ice during the last glaciation. The phenomenon is known as post-glacial rebound. Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing. The uplift is about eight millimeters per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia. In the area, the former seabed is only gently sloping, leading to large areas of land being reclaimed in what are, geologically speaking, relatively short periods (decades and centuries).
The "Baltic Sea anomaly"
The "Baltic Sea anomaly" is a feature on an indistinct
Biology
Fauna and flora
The fauna of the Baltic Sea is a mixture of marine and freshwater species. Among marine fishes are
There is a decrease in species richness from the Danish belts to the
Since the Baltic Sea is so young there are only two or three known
A peculiar feature of the fauna is that it contains a number of glacial
Other notable megafauna include the basking sharks.[79]
Environmental status
Satellite images taken in July 2010 revealed a massive algal bloom covering 377,000 square kilometres (146,000 sq mi) in the Baltic Sea. The area of the bloom extended from Germany and Poland to Finland. Researchers of the phenomenon have indicated that algal blooms have occurred every summer for decades. Fertilizer runoff from surrounding agricultural land has exacerbated the problem and led to increased eutrophication.[80]
Approximately 100,000 km2 (38,610 sq mi) of the Baltic's seafloor (a quarter of its total area) is a variable dead zone. The more saline (and therefore denser) water remains on the bottom, isolating it from surface waters and the atmosphere. This leads to decreased oxygen concentrations within the zone. It is mainly bacteria that grow in it, digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide. Because of this large anaerobic zone, the seafloor ecology differs from that of the neighboring Atlantic.
Plans to artificially oxygenate areas of the Baltic that have experienced eutrophication have been proposed by the University of Gothenburg and Inocean AB. The proposal intends to use wind-driven pumps to inject oxygen (air) into waters at, or around, 130m below sea level.[81]
After World War II, Germany had to be disarmed and large quantities of ammunition stockpiles were disposed directly into the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. Environmental experts and marine biologists warn that these ammunition dumps pose a major environmental threat with potentially life-threatening consequences to the health and safety of humans on the coastlines of these seas.[82]
Economy
Construction of the
Much shipbuilding is carried out in the shipyards around the Baltic Sea. The largest shipyards are at Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, Poland; Kiel, Germany; Karlskrona and Malmö, Sweden; Rauma, Turku, and Helsinki, Finland; Riga, Ventspils, and Liepāja, Latvia; Klaipėda, Lithuania; and Saint Petersburg, Russia.
There are several cargo and passenger ferries that operate on the Baltic Sea, such as Scandlines, Silja Line, Polferries, the Viking Line, Tallink, and Superfast Ferries.
Construction of the
Through the development of offshore wind power the Baltic Sea is expected to become a major source of energy for countries in the region. According to the Marienborg Declaration, signed in 2022, all EU Baltic Sea states have announced their intentions to have 19.6 gigawatts of offshore wind in operation by 2030.[83]
Tourism
Piers
|
Resort towns
|
The Helsinki Convention
1974 Convention
For the first time ever, all the sources of pollution around an entire sea were made subject to a single convention, signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states. The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980.
1992 Convention
In the light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law, a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community. After ratification, the
The governing body of the convention is the Helsinki Commission,[84] also known as HELCOM, or Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission. The present contracting parties are Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Sweden.
The ratification instruments were deposited by the European Community, Germany, Latvia and Sweden in 1994, by Estonia and Finland in 1995, by Denmark in 1996, by Lithuania in 1997, and by Poland and Russia in November 1999.
See also
Notes
- ^ A healthy serum concentration of sodium is around 0.8–0.85%, and healthy kidneys can concentrate salt in urine to at least 1.4%.
References
- ^ "Coalition Clean Baltic". Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2013.
- ISBN 9781559639712– via Google Books.
- ^ "Text of Helsinki Convention". Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
- ^ "Sundzoll". Academic dictionaries and encyclopedias. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
- ^ "Fragen zum Meer (Antworten) – IOW". www.io-warnemuende.de. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
- ^ "Swedish Chemicals Agency (KEMI): The BaltSens Project – The sensitivity of the Baltic Sea ecosystems to hazardous compounds" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
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{{cite web}}
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Bibliography
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Further reading
- Norbert Götz. "Spatial Politics and Fuzzy Regionalism: The Case of the Baltic Sea Area." Baltic Worlds 9 (2016) 3: 54–67.
- Aarno Voipio (ed., 1981): "The Baltic Sea." Elsevier Oceanography Series, vol. 30, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 418 p, ISBN 0-444-41884-9
- Ojaveer, H.; Jaanus, A.; MacKenzie, B. R.; Martin, G.; Olenin, S.; et al. (2010). "Status of Biodiversity in the Baltic Sea". PMID 20824189.
- Peter, Bruce (2009). Baltic Ferries. Ramsey, Isle of Man: Ferry Publications. ISBN 9781906608057.
- The BACC II Author Team; et al. (2015). Second Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin. Regional Climate Studies. Springer. S2CID 127011711.
Historical
- Bogucka, Maria. "The Role of Baltic Trade in European Development from the XVIth to the XVIIIth Centuries". Journal of European Economic History 9 (1980): 5–20.
- Davey, James. The Transformation of British Naval Strategy: Seapower and Supply in Northern Europe, 1808–1812 (Boydell, 2012).
- Dickson, Henry Newton (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). pp. 286–287.
- Fedorowicz, Jan K. England's Baltic Trade in the Early Seventeenth Century: A Study in Anglo-Polish Commercial Diplomacy (Cambridge UP, 2008).
- Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War, State, and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 (Longman, 2000).
- Grainger, John D. The British Navy in the Baltic (Boydell, 2014).
- Kent, Heinz S. K. War and Trade in Northern Seas: Anglo-Scandinavian Economic Relations in the Mid Eighteenth Century (Cambridge UP, 1973).
- Koningsbrugge, Hans van. "In War and Peace: The Dutch and the Baltic in Early Modern Times". Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek 16 (1995): 189–200.
- Lindblad, Jan Thomas. "Structural Change in the Dutch Trade in the Baltic in the Eighteenth Century". Scandinavian Economic History Review 33 (1985): 193–207.
- Lisk, Jill. The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic, 1600–1725 (U of London Press, 1967).
- Roberts, Michael. The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611 (Cambridge UP, 1968).
- Rystad, Göran, Klaus-R. Böhme, and Wilhelm M. Carlgren, eds. In Quest of Trade and Security: The Baltic in Power Politics, 1500–1990. Vol. 1, 1500–1890. Stockholm: Probus, 1994.
- Salmon, Patrick, and Tony Barrow, eds. Britain and the Baltic: Studies in Commercial, Political and Cultural Relations (Sunderland University Press, 2003).
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- Tielhof, Milja van. The "Mother of All Trades": The Baltic Grain Trade in Amsterdam from the Late 16th to Early 19th Century. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
- Warner, Richard. "British Merchants and Russian Men-of-War: The Rise of the Russian Baltic Fleet". In Peter the Great and the West: New Perspectives. Edited by Lindsey Hughes, 105–117. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
External links
- The Baltic Sea, Kattegat and Skagerrak – sea areas and draining basins, poster with integral information by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
- Baltic Sea clickable map and details.
- Protect the Baltic Sea while it's still not too late.
- The Baltic Sea Portal – a site maintained by the"Finnish Institute of Marine Research". Archived from the original on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2007. (FIMR) (in English, Finnish, Swedish and Estonian)
- www.balticnest.org
- Encyclopedia of Baltic History
- Old shipwrecks in the Baltic
- How the Baltic Sea was changing – Prehistory of the Baltic from the Polish Geological Institute
- Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland – more prehistory of the Baltic from the Department of Geography of the University of Helsinki
- Baltic Environmental Atlas: Interactive map of the Baltic Sea region
- Can a New Cleanup Plan Save the Sea? – spiegel.de
- List of all ferry lines in the Baltic Sea
- The Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) HELCOM is the governing body of the "Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area"
- Baltice.org – information related to winter navigation in the Baltic Sea.
- Baltic Sea Wind – Marine weather forecasts
- Ostseeflug – A short film (55'), showing the coastline and the major German cities at the Baltic sea.