Banff National Park
Banff National Park | |
---|---|
Coordinates | 51°30′N 116°00′W / 51.5°N 116.0°W |
Area | 6,641 km2 (2,564 sq mi) |
Established | 25 November 1885 |
Visitors | 3,609,639[2] (in 2014/15) |
Governing body | Parks Canada |
Website | parks |
Part of | Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks |
Criteria | Natural: (vii), (viii) |
Reference | 304 |
Inscription | 1984 (8th Session) |
Banff National Park is Canada's oldest
The
Since the 1960s, park accommodations have been open all year, with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s.[5] Millions more pass through the park on the Trans-Canada Highway.[6] As Banff has over three million visitors annually, the health of its ecosystem has been threatened. In the mid-1990s, Parks Canada responded by initiating a two-year study which resulted in management recommendations and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity.
Banff National Park has a
The mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks which were pushed east over newer rock strata, between 80 and 55 million years ago. Over the past few million years, glaciers have at times covered most of the park, but today are found only on the mountain slopes though they include the Columbia Icefield, the largest uninterrupted glacial mass in the Rockies. Erosion from water and ice have carved the mountains into their current shapes.
History
Throughout its history, Banff National Park has been shaped by tension between
Indigenous peoples
Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes indicates the first human activity in Banff to 10,300 B.P.
With the admission of British Columbia to Canada on July 20, 1871, Canada agreed to build a transcontinental railroad. Construction of the railroad began in 1875, with Kicking Horse Pass chosen, over the more northerly Yellowhead Pass, as the route through the Canadian Rockies.[8] Ten years later, on November 7, 1885, the last spike was driven in Craigellachie, British Columbia.[8]
Rocky Mountains Park established
With conflicting claims over the discovery of hot springs in Banff, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi) around the hot springs at
The
Early on, Banff was popular with wealthy European and American tourists, the former of which arrived in Canada via trans-Atlantic luxury liner and continued westward on the railroad.[12] Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities, often hiring local guides. Guides Jim and Bill Brewster founded one of the first outfitters in Banff.[14] From 1906, the Alpine Club of Canada organized climbs, hikes and camps in the park.[15]
By 1911, Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary.[15] Beginning in 1916, the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff.[14] In 1920, access to Lake Louise by road was available, and the Banff-Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff with British Columbia.[15]
In 1902, the park was expanded to cover 11,400 km2 (4,400 sq mi), encompassing areas around Lake Louise, and the
Coal mining
In 1877, the First Nations of the area signed Treaty 7, which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources. At the beginning of the 20th century, coal was mined near Lake Minnewanka in Banff. For a brief period, a mine operated at Anthracite but was shut down in 1904. The Bankhead mine, at Cascade Mountain, was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922. In 1926, the town was dismantled, with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere.[17]
Internment and work camps
During
In 1931, the
Winter tourism
Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917, with the first Banff Winter Carnival. It was marketed to a regional middle class audience, and became the centerpiece of local boosters aiming to attract visitors, which were a low priority for the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).
Since 1968, when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized, Banff has been a year-round destination.[26] In the 1950s, the Trans-Canada Highway was constructed, providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley, making the park more accessible.[15]
Canada launched several bids to host the
Conservation
Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act, subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation. With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism,
In 1984, Banff was declared a
During the 1980s, Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses, and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts. In 1990, the town of Banff was incorporated, giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments.[28]
In the 1990s, development plans for the park, including expansion at Sunshine Village, were under fire with lawsuits filed by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS).[12] In the mid-1990s, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns, and issues relating to development in the park.[29]
Geography
Banff National Park is located in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta's western border with British Columbia in the
Banff
Banff, established in 1885, is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park, as well as a centre for cultural activities. located on the outskirts of town.
Lake Louise
Lake Louise, a hamlet located 54 km (34 mi) northwest of the town of Banff, is home to the landmark
Icefields Parkway
The Icefields Parkway is a 230-kilometre-long (140 mi)
The North Saskatchewan River flows east from Saskatchewan Crossing, out of Banff, into what is known as David Thompson Country, and onto Edmonton. The David Thompson Highway follows the North Saskatchewan River, past the man-made Abraham Lake, and through David Thompson Country.
North of Saskatchewan Crossing, the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to the Columbia Icefield. The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park at Sunwapta Pass at 2,035 metres (6,677 ft) in elevation,[37] and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite.
Geology
The
The Canadian Rockies are composed of
The Canadian Rockies may have risen up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) approximately 70 m.y.a.
Many of the mountain ranges trend northwest to southeast, with sedimentary layering dipping down to the west at 40–60 degrees.
Glaciers and icefields
Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, 100 of which can be observed from the
The largest glaciated areas include the Waputik and Wapta Icefields, which both lie on the Banff-Yoho National Park border. Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 km2 (31 sq mi) in area.[53] Outlets of Wapta Icefield on the Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto, Bow, and Vulture Glaciers. Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1,100 m (3,600 ft) between the years 1850 and 1953,[53] and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine. Peyto Glacier has lost 70 percent of its volume since record keeping began and has retreated approximately 2,000 m (6,600 ft) since 1880; the glacier is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years.[52][54]
The Columbia Icefield, at the northern end of Banff, straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia. Snow Dome, in the Columbia Icefield is a hydrological apex of North America, with water flowing via outlet glaciers to the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic Oceans.[55] Saskatchewan Glacier, which is approximately 13 km (8 mi) in length and 30 km2 (12 sq mi) in area,[53] is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff National Park. Between the years 1893 and 1953, Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1,364 m (4,475 ft), with the rate of retreat between the years 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 m (180 ft) per year.[53] Overall, the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies lost 25 percent of their mass during the 20th century.[56]
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, the park has a subarctic climate (Dfc) with cold, snowy winters, and mild summers.[57] The climate is influenced by altitude with lower temperatures generally found at higher elevations.[58] Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, Banff National Park receives 472 millimetres (18.6 in) of precipitation annually.[59] This is considerably less than in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia, where 884 mm (34.8 in) is received at Wapta Lake and 616 mm (24.3 in) at Boulder Creek annually.[59] Being influenced by altitude, snowfall is also greater at higher elevations.[58] As such, 234 cm (92 in) of snow falls on average each year in the Banff townsite, while 304 cm (120 in) falls in Lake Louise, which is located at a higher altitude.[58]
During winter months, temperatures in Banff are moderated, compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta, due to
Climate data for Banff | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high humidex | 12.2 | 14.3 | 16.1 | 24.4 | 29.0 | 30.0 | 33.0 | 32.8 | 30.4 | 24.9 | 15.0 | 12.2 | 33.0 |
Record high °C (°F) | 12.2 (54.0) |
14.7 (58.5) |
17.2 (63.0) |
25.6 (78.1) |
29.4 (84.9) |
33.3 (91.9) |
34.4 (93.9) |
33.9 (93.0) |
31.0 (87.8) |
26.5 (79.7) |
16.5 (61.7) |
12.5 (54.5) |
34.4 (93.9) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −4.6 (23.7) |
−0.4 (31.3) |
4.5 (40.1) |
9.5 (49.1) |
14.5 (58.1) |
18.5 (65.3) |
21.9 (71.4) |
21.3 (70.3) |
16.3 (61.3) |
10.1 (50.2) |
0.2 (32.4) |
−5.1 (22.8) |
8.9 (48.0) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | −9.3 (15.3) |
−6 (21) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
3.5 (38.3) |
8.1 (46.6) |
12.0 (53.6) |
14.6 (58.3) |
14.1 (57.4) |
9.5 (49.1) |
4.4 (39.9) |
−4.1 (24.6) |
−9.2 (15.4) |
3.0 (37.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −14.1 (6.6) |
−11.6 (11.1) |
−7.3 (18.9) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
1.7 (35.1) |
5.4 (41.7) |
7.4 (45.3) |
6.9 (44.4) |
2.7 (36.9) |
−1.3 (29.7) |
−8.4 (16.9) |
−13.3 (8.1) |
−2.9 (26.8) |
Record low °C (°F) | −51.2 (−60.2) |
−45 (−49) |
−40.6 (−41.1) |
−27.2 (−17.0) |
−17.8 (0.0) |
−3.9 (25.0) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
−4.5 (23.9) |
−16.7 (1.9) |
−27 (−17) |
−40.6 (−41.1) |
−48.3 (−54.9) |
−51.2 (−60.2) |
Record low wind chill | −52.1 | −49.1 | −41.8 | −37 | −21.1 | −5.3 | −3.2 | −4.7 | −14.4 | −28.7 | −43.1 | −50.6 | −52.1 |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 27.5 (1.08) |
21.9 (0.86) |
23.4 (0.92) |
32.4 (1.28) |
59.6 (2.35) |
61.7 (2.43) |
54.2 (2.13) |
60.1 (2.37) |
42.1 (1.66) |
29.4 (1.16) |
26.8 (1.06) |
33.2 (1.31) |
472.3 (18.59) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 2.9 (0.11) |
1.7 (0.07) |
2.7 (0.11) |
12.6 (0.50) |
44.3 (1.74) |
59.8 (2.35) |
54.1 (2.13) |
60.0 (2.36) |
37.0 (1.46) |
13.8 (0.54) |
4.4 (0.17) |
3.1 (0.12) |
296.2 (11.66) |
Average snowfall cm (inches) | 34.1 (13.4) |
29.3 (11.5) |
28.1 (11.1) |
22.5 (8.9) |
17.0 (6.7) |
1.8 (0.7) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.2 (0.1) |
5.7 (2.2) |
19.8 (7.8) |
32.3 (12.7) |
43.2 (17.0) |
234.1 (92.2) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm) | 10.7 | 9.9 | 10.2 | 10.9 | 13.4 | 15.0 | 14.5 | 15.0 | 11.0 | 9.3 | 10.0 | 11.1 | 141.0 |
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm) | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 4.8 | 11.7 | 14.9 | 14.5 | 14.9 | 10.0 | 5.6 | 2.3 | 1.0 | 82.9 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm) | 11.1 | 9.8 | 10.0 | 7.9 | 4.1 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 2.2 | 4.9 | 9.2 | 11.2 | 71.0 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 58.9 | 93.2 | 127.1 | 159.0 | 201.5 | 207.0 | 254.2 | 213.9 | 171.0 | 130.2 | 81.0 | 43.4 | 1,740.4 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 1.9 | 3.3 | 4.1 | 5.3 | 6.5 | 6.9 | 8.2 | 6.9 | 5.7 | 4.2 | 2.7 | 1.4 | 4.8 |
Source 1: Environment Canada[59]
| |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun, 1948–1970)[60] |
Ecology
Ecoregions
Banff National Park spans three
Wildlife
The park has 56 recorded mammal species.
Due to the harsh winters, the park has few reptile and amphibian species with only one species of toad, three species of frog, one salamander species and two species of snakes that have been identified.[63] At least 280 species of birds can be found in Banff including bald and golden eagles, red-tailed hawk, osprey, and merlin, all of which are predatory species. Additionally, commonly seen species such as the Canada jay, American three-toed woodpecker, mountain bluebird, Clark's nutcracker, mountain chickadee and pipit are frequently found in the lower elevations. The white-tailed ptarmigan is a ground bird that is often seen in the alpine zones. Rivers and lakes are frequented by over a hundred different species including loon, heron and mallard which spend their summers in the park.[63]
Endangered species in Banff include the Banff Springs snail (Physella johnsoni) that is found in the hot springs of Banff,[66] and the Woodland caribou.[67]
Mountain pine beetles
Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large-scale infestations in Banff National Park, feeding on the phloem of mature lodgepole pines. Alberta's first known outbreak occurred in 1940, infecting 43 km2 (17 sq mi) of forest in Banff.[68] A second major outbreak occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region.
Tourism
Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America, with more than three million tourists annually.[69] Tourism in Banff contributes an estimated CA$6 billion annually to the economy.[29]
A park pass is required for stopping in the park, and permit checks are common during the summer months, especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway. A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping. Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans-Canada Highway without stopping.[6]
In 2009, Banff Lake Louise Tourism hoped the appearance of the "Crasher Squirrel" internet meme would stimulate interest in the park. The meme is based on a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was "crashed" by a Columbian ground squirrel; the photograph was published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos.[70]
General management
Banff National Park is managed by
Wildlife management
Previous management
The park was originally considered as a recreational area for visitors offering multiple leisure activities – the original wildlife policy viewed wildlife in Banff only as game or pests up until the 1960s and 1970s. As ecological awareness increased, management procedures expanded with the inclusion of public participation in many management decisions. Simultaneously, the increase in human construction (such as new highways) on the natural landscape increased the frequency of human–animal conflicts. In 1988 wildlife began to be considered an integral part of the ecosystem.[72]
The park now has a number of wildlife management strategies that aim to conserve certain species. Parks Canada uses an ecosystem based management approach that aims to preserve the ecology of the park while still providing for visitors. Management decisions are based on modern scientific ecological information as well as traditional knowledge.[73]
Large species management
Elk are a very important species in Banff National Park, partly because they represent a source of food for declining wolves. However they also have harsh impacts on the environment. Large elk populations cause
Elk handling facilities are areas of pens with loading and unloading ramps where water and food are provided to the elk. They were created to help reduce herd numbers by increasing wariness and encouraging migratory behaviour, deterring the elk from the town of Banff. These measures allowed more predator–prey interactions thanks to the creation of corridors. They also increased elk migration, restored the willow and aspen communities and highlighted the primary role of wolves in elk population management.[73]
The state of grizzly bear populations in Banff is seen as a proxy for ecological integrity.[74] To keep bears away from humans, an electric fence was put up around the summer gondola and parking lot at Lake Louise in 2001. Bear-proof garbage cans, which do not allow bears to access their contents, help to deter them from human sites. The fruit of Buffaloberry bushes is eaten by bears, so the bushes have been removed in some areas where the risk of a bear–human encounter is high.
Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour. Deterrents such as noise makers and rubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action. Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventual habituation of bears to human presence. If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour (crossing into campsites and roads etc.).[73]
Southern mountain caribou management previously aimed to identify what was threatening caribou populations and find solutions to mitigate the threats, but the last caribou in the park was found dead in an avalanche in 2009.[75] There was concern over why more had not been done to save the caribou population. The primary reason for their decline is thought to have been habitat loss and altered predator–prey dynamics.[75] Park management began monitoring the last five caribou in the park in 2002 and taking actions such as reducing impacts of humans, conducting studies of the population, and investigating the possibility of translocating caribou to increase the Banff population.[76][77]
In the mid-1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park. They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850. Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991.[73][78] A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area.[79] The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem. A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America.[80] The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60–70 animals.[73]
Plains bisons were reintroduced to Banff in 2017.[81] The park has an extensive system of grasslands in backcountry valleys that are perfect for the bison.[82] 16 bison were translocated from Elk Island National Park and initially placed under observation for a year in an enclosed pasture within a 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi) reintroduction site near Panther River Valley.[83][84] After 18 months of acclimation, the herd was released into the reintroduction site and as of August 2021, the herd had grown to 66.[85][86][87]
Strategies
In 2011, Parks Canada began to study the effectiveness of electro-mats, large mats that give a small electric shock to animals that step on them, as a potential deterrent around train tracks.[90] A trial installment of the mats was placed in Banff to test their effectiveness in deterring animals like bears from gaining access to the fenced train tracks inside the park.[91]
General prohibitions implemented to ensure wildlife respect include the prohibition of feeding, touching, or holding animals in captivity, and the disturbance or destruction of bird nests.[73]
Human impact
Environment
Since the 19th century, humans have impacted Banff's environment through introduction of
The population of bull trout and other native species of fish in Banff's lakes has also dwindled, with the introduction of non-native species including brook trout, and rainbow trout.[96] Lake trout, westslope cutthroat trout, and Chiselmouth are rare native species, while chinook salmon, White sturgeon, Pacific lamprey, and Banff longnose dace are likely extirpated locally.[97] The Banff longnose dace, once only found in Banff, is now an extinct species.[97]
The Trans-Canada Highway, passing through Banff, has been problematic, posing hazards for
Fire management
Parks Canada management practices, notably
Transportation
Banff National Park is bisected by two highways that cross the Alberta/British Columbia border while another provides a third access within Alberta. The Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) bisects the park in an east–west direction, connecting it to Vancouver to the west and Calgary to the east. Highway 93 bisects the park in a north–south direction, connecting it to Cranbrook to the south and Jasper to the north. The portion of Highway 93 north of Lake Louise is known as the Icefields Parkway whereas the portion southwest of Castle Junction is known as the Banff-Windermere Parkway. Highway 11 (the David Thompson Highway) connects the Icefields Parkway at Saskatchewan River Crossing to Rocky Mountain House to the northeast. Within the park, Highway 1A, also known as the Bow Valley Parkway, loosely parallels Highway 1 between Banff and Lake Louise.[101][102]
The closest airport with long-haul flights is Calgary International Airport (YYC).
Other transportation facilities within Banff National Park include a
Development
In 1978, expansion of Sunshine Village ski resort was approved, with added parking, hotel expansion, and development of Goat's Eye Mountain. Implementation of this development proposal was delayed through the 1980s, while environmental assessments were conducted. In 1989, Sunshine Village withdrew its development proposal, in light of government reservations, and submitted a revised proposal in 1992. This plan was approved by the government, pending environmental review. Subsequently, the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) filed a court injunction, which halted the development.[104] CPAWS also put pressure on UNESCO to revoke Banff's World Heritage Site status, over concerns that developments were harming the park's ecological health.[105]
Banff-Bow Valley Study
While the National Parks Act and the 1988 amendment emphasize ecological integrity, in practice Banff has suffered from inconsistent application of the policies.[29] In 1994, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was mandated by Sheila Copps, the minister responsible for Parks Canada, to provide recommendations on how to better manage human use and development, and maintain ecological integrity.[106] While the two-year Banff-Bow Valley Study was underway, development projects were halted, including the expansion of Sunshine Village, and the twinning of the Trans-Canada Highway between Castle Junction and Sunshine.
The panel issued over 500 recommendations, including limiting the growth of the Banff townsite, capping the town's population at 10,000, placing quotas for popular hiking trails, and curtailing development in the park.
In response to concerns and recommendations raised by the Banff-Bow Valley Study, a number of development plans were curtailed in the 1990s. Plans to add nine holes at the Banff Springs Golf Resort were withdrawn in 1996.[109]
Canmore
With the cap on growth in the town of Banff, Canmore, located just outside the Banff boundary, has been growing rapidly to serve increasing demands of tourists. Major development proposals for Canmore have included the Three Sisters Golf Resorts, proposed in 1992, which has been the subject of contentious debate, with environmental groups arguing that the development would fragment important wildlife corridors in the Bow Valley.[110]
See also
- Bears and Man, a documentary on bear problems in the park
- List of national parks of Canada
- List of historic places in Alberta's Rockies
- List of mountains of Alberta
- List of trails in Alberta
- List of waterfalls of Alberta
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Gibeau, M. L.; Herrero, S.; McLellan, B. N.; Woods, J. G (2001). "Managing for grizzly bear security areas in Banff National Park and the Central Canadian Rocky Mountains" (PDF). Ursus: 121–129. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2010. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
- ^ S2CID 10895275.
- ^ White, C. A. & W. Fisher (2007). "Ecological restoration in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: developing and implementing the 1997 Banff National Park Management Plan". Mountain Area Research & Management: Integrated Approaches: 217–244.
- ^ Kinley, T (2009). "Caribou population augmentation feasibility assessment for Banff National Park". Sylvan Consulting, Invermere.
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- ^ Paquet, Paul C; Callahan, C (1996). Effects of linear developments on winter movements of gray wolves in the Bow River Valley of Banff National Park, Alberta (Report).
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- ^ Condon, Olivia (August 3, 2019). "Banff bison one year after release: setbacks, triumphs and hope for team tasked with herd's success". Calgary Herald. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
- ^ "Bison Bellows: Banff National Park's Newest Wildlife". U.S. National Park Service. October 27, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
- ^ "Bison return to Canada's oldest park". BBC News. February 6, 2017.
- ^ "Canada reintroduces bison to Banff national park after more than a century". the Guardian. Reuters. February 13, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2021.
- ^ Rieger, Sarah (February 11, 2020). "Bison turn up bones of their ancestors, old wallowing spots in return to Banff 140 years later". CBC News. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
- ^ Glasnovic, Jamey (January 7, 2021). "Banff bison herd feeling right at home". RMOToday.com. Great West Media. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
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- ^ "Wildlife Crossing Structures and Fencing — Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative". y2y.net. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
- ^ a b Bortolotti, Dan (2011). "Bears and the railway: Wildlife stories of the year – Canadian Geographic". www.canadiangeographic.ca. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
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{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Struzik, Ed (March 12, 2000). "Wolves losing mountain park turf to humans: Traffic congestion in Jasper and Banff gravely impacting park populations". Edmonton Journal. p. A6.
- S2CID 85749410.
- ^ a b Barnett, Vicki (March 10, 1996). "Native fish stocks drastically down in central Rockies". Calgary Herald. p. D1.
- ^ Eisenberg, Cristina (May 1, 2014). The Carnivore Way: Coexisting with and Conserving North America's Predators. Island Press. pp. 26–28.
- ISBN 978-0-12-409601-1.
- ^ Bhardwaj, Michael (January 2003). "Let it burn! Why Canada's National Parks use fire to prevent fire". Canadian Geographic. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
- ^ 2013 Alberta Official Road Map (Map). Travel Alberta. 2013.
- Alberta Transportation). March 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
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- ^ Fuller, Patty (February 14, 1994). "No ray of light for Sunshine Village". Alberta Report.
- ^ Adams, Jeff (April 16, 1993). "Twinning Breaks Pledge, Says Expert". Calgary Herald. p. B11.
- ^ "Banff-Bow Valley Study, Technical Report, chapter 1" (PDF).
- ^ DePalma, Anthony (January 5, 1997). "Popularity Brings a Huge Canadian Park to Crisis". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
- ^ "Banff National Park Management Plan". Parks Canada. April 17, 1997. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
- ^ "Highlights of Minister's Direction for the Banff Bow Valley and Response to the Bow Valley Study Report". Parks Canada. October 7, 1996. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
- ^ Barnett, Vicki (July 26, 1992). "Stakes are high for resort". Calgary Herald. p. A8.
External links