Bangkok

Bangkok,^[a] officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon^[b] and colloquially as Krung Thep,^[c] is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 per cent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 per cent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1767 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance, business and pop culture. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating 10 urban rail lines and building other public transit; however, congestion remains a prevalent issue.

History

The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, to when it was a village on the west bank of the

Bangkok's economy gradually expanded through international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siam's modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late-19th century. The reigns of Kings Mongkut (Rama IV, r. 1851–68) and Chulalongkorn (Rama V, r. 1868–1910) saw the introduction of the steam engine, printing press, rail transport and utilities infrastructure in the city, as well as formal education and healthcare. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932.^[12]

As Thailand allied with Japan in World War II, Bangkok was subjected to Allied bombing, but rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of US aid and government-sponsored investment. Bangkok's role as a US military R&R destination boosted its tourism industry as well as firmly establishing it as a sex tourism destination. Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 million to 3 million in the 1960s.^[12]

Following the US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.

Administration of the city was first formalized by King Chulalongkorn in 1906, with the establishment of Monthon Krung Thep Phra Maha Nakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร) as a national subdivision. In 1915, the monthon was split into several provinces, the administrative boundaries of which have since further changed. The city in its current form was created in 1972 with the formation of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), following the merger of Phra Nakhon province on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya and Thonburi province on the west during the previous year.^[11]

Name

The origin of the name Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk] ^ⓘ) is unclear. Bang บาง is a Thai word meaning 'a village on a stream',^[14] and the name might have been derived from Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), ko เกาะ meaning 'island', stemming from the city's watery landscape.^[10] Another theory suggests that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok มะกอก being the name of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus, a plant bearing olive-like fruit.^[d] This is supported by the former name of Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, that used to be called Wat Makok.^[15]

Officially, the town was known as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร, from

When King Rama I established his new capital on the river's eastern bank, the city inherited Ayutthaya's ceremonial name, of which there were many variants, including Krung Thep Thawarawadi Si Ayutthaya (กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา) and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (กรุงเทพมหานครศรีอยุธยา).[17] Edmund Roberts, visiting the city as envoy of the United States in 1833, noted that the city, since becoming capital, was known as Sia-Yut'hia, and this is the name used in international treaties of the period.^[18]

The city's ceremonial name which came into use during the reign of King Mongkut.^[e][11] The full name reads as follows:^[19][f]

Full ceremonial name

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Krungthepmahanakhon Amonrattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilokphop Noppharatratchathaniburirom Udomratchaniwetmahasathan Amonphimanawatansathit Sakkathattiyawitsanukamprasit
กรุงเทพมหานคร อมรรัตนโกสินทร์ มหินทรายุธยา มหาดิลกภพ นพรัตนราชธานีบูรีรมย์ อุดมราชนิเวศน์มหาสถาน อมรพิมานอวตารสถิต สักกะทัตติยวิษณุกรรมประสิทธิ์

The name, composed of Pali and Sanskrit root words, translates as:^[19]

City of angels, great city of immortals, magnificent city of the

Vishvakarman at Indra

's behest.

Today, the city is officially known in Thai by a shortened form of the full ceremonial name, Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (กรุงเทพมหานคร), which is colloquially further shortened to Krung Thep (กรุงเทพฯ).

The Big Apple for New York City.^[25]

Government

Main article: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration

The city of Bangkok is locally governed by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA). Although its boundaries are at the provincial (

changwat) level, unlike the other 76 provinces Bangkok is a special administrative area whose governor is directly elected to serve a four-year term. The governor, together with four appointed deputies, form the executive body, who implement policies through the BMA civil service headed by the Permanent Secretary for the BMA. In separate elections, each district elects one or more city councillors, who form the Bangkok Metropolitan Council. The council is the BMA's legislative body, and has power over municipal ordinances and the city's budget.^[26] The latest gubernatorial election took place on 22 May 2022 after an extended lapse following the 2014 Thai coup d'état, and was won by Chadchart Sittipunt.^[27]

Bangkok is divided into

amphoe in the other provinces), which are further subdivided into 180 sub-districts (khwaeng, equivalent to tambon

). Each district is managed by a district director appointed by the governor. District councils, elected to four-year terms, serve as advisory bodies to their respective district directors.

The BMA is divided into sixteen departments, each overseeing different aspects of the administration's responsibilities. Most of these responsibilities concern the city's infrastructure, and include city planning, building control, transportation, drainage, waste management and city beautification, as well as education, medical and rescue services.

Metropolitan Police Bureau

.

The seal of the city shows

Prince Naris. The tree symbol of Bangkok is Ficus benjamina.^[30]

The official city slogan, adopted in 2012, reads:

As built by deities, the administrative centre, dazzling palaces and temples, the capital of Thailand
กรุงเทพฯ ดุจเทพสร้าง เมืองศูนย์กลางการปกครอง วัดวังงามเรืองรอง เมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย[31]

As the capital of Thailand, Bangkok is the seat of all branches of the

Parliament House and Supreme, Administrative and Constitutional Courts are all in the city. Bangkok is the site of the Grand Palace and Dusit Palace

, respectively the official and de facto residence of the king. Most government ministries also have headquarters and offices in the capital.

Geography

Bangkok covers an area of 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi), ranking 69th among the other 76 provinces of Thailand. Of this, about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) form the built-up urban area.^[1] It is ranked 73rd in the world in terms of land area.^[32] The city's urban sprawl reaches into parts of the six other provinces that it borders, namely, in clockwise order from northwest: Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Chachoengsao, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, and Nakhon Pathom. With the exception of Chachoengsao, these provinces, together with Bangkok, form the greater Bangkok Metropolitan Region.^[2]

Topography

Bangkok is situated in the Chao Phraya River delta in Thailand's

swampland, which was gradually drained and irrigated for agriculture by the construction of canals (khlong) which took place from the 16th to 19th centuries. The course of the river as it flows through Bangkok has been modified by the construction of several shortcut canals

.

The city's waterway network served as the primary means of transport until the late 19th century, when modern roads began to be built. Up until then, most people lived near or on the water, leading the city to be known during the 19th century as the "Venice of the East".^[33] Many of these canals have since been filled in or paved over, but others still criss-cross the city, serving as major drainage channels and transport routes. Most canals are now badly polluted, although the BMA has committed to the treatment and cleaning up of several canals.^[34]

The geology of the Bangkok area is characterized by a top layer of soft marine clay, known as "Bangkok clay", averaging 15 metres (49 ft) in thickness, which overlies an aquifer system consisting of eight known units. This feature has contributed to the effects of subsidence caused by extensive groundwater pumping. First recognized in the 1970s, subsidence soon became a critical issue, reaching a rate of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) per year in 1981. Ground water management and mitigation measures have since lessened the severity of the situation, and the rate of subsidence decreased to 10 to 30 millimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year in the early 2000s, though parts of the city are now 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) below sea level.^[35]

Subsidence has resulted in increased flood risk, as Bangkok is already prone to flooding due to its low elevation and an inadequate drainage infrastructure,^[36][37] often compounded by blockage from rubbish pollution (especially plastic waste).^[38] The city now relies on flood barriers and augmenting drainage from canals by pumping and building drain tunnels, but parts of Bangkok and its suburbs are still regularly inundated. Heavy downpours resulting in urban runoff overwhelming drainage systems, and runoff discharge from upstream areas, are major triggering factors.^[39] Severe flooding affecting much of the city occurred in 1995 and 2011. In 2011, most of Bangkok's northern, eastern and western districts were flooded, in some places for over two months.

Bangkok's coastal location makes it particularly vulnerable to

Bang Khun Thian District. Tidal flat ecosystems existed on the coast; however, many have been reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture, and salt works.^[47]

There are no mountains in Bangkok. The closest mountain range is the Khao Khiao Massif, about 40 km (25 mi) southeast of the city. Phu Khao Thong, the only hill in the metropolitan area, originated with a very large chedi that King Rama III (1787–1851) built at Wat Saket. The chedi collapsed during construction because the soft soil could not support its weight. Over the next few decades, the abandoned mud-and-brick structure acquired the shape of a natural hill and became overgrown with weeds. The locals called it phu khao (ภูเขา), as if it were a natural feature.^[48] In the 1940s, enclosing concrete walls were added to stop the hill from eroding.^[49]

Climate

Like most of Thailand, Bangkok has a

Asian monsoon system. The city experiences three seasons: hot, rainy, and cool, although temperatures are fairly hot year-round, ranging from an average low of 23.2 °C (73.8 °F) in December to an average high of 35.7 °C (96.3 °F) in April. The annual average temperature is 28.9 °C (84.0 °F). The rainy season begins with the arrival of the southwest monsoon around mid-May. September is the wettest month, with an average rainfall of 335.9 millimetres (13.22 in). The rainy season lasts until October, when the dry and cool northeast monsoon takes over until February. The hot season is generally dry, but also sees occasional summer storms.^[50] The surface magnitude of Bangkok's urban heat island has been measured at 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) during the day and 8.0 °C (14 °F) at night.^[51] The highest recorded temperature of Bangkok metropolis was 41.0 °C (105.8 °F) on 7 May 2023,^[52] and the lowest recorded temperature was 9.9 °C (49.8 °F) in January 1955.^[53]

The Climate Impact Group at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies projected severe weather impacts on Bangkok caused by climate change. It found that Bangkok in 1960 had 193 days at or above 32 °C. In 2018, Bangkok can expect 276 days at or above 32 °C. The group forecasts a rise by 2100 to, on average, 297 to 344 days at or above 32 °C.^[54]

Climate data for Bangkok Metropolis (1991–2020, extremes 1840–present)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	37.6 (99.7)	38.8 (101.8)	40.1 (104.2)	40.0 (104.0)	41.0 (105.8)	38.8 (101.8)	38.4 (101.1)	38.2 (100.8)	37.4 (99.3)	37.9 (100.2)	38.8 (101.8)	37.1 (98.8)	41.0 (105.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	32.7 (90.9)	33.7 (92.7)	34.7 (94.5)	35.7 (96.3)	35.1 (95.2)	34.1 (93.4)	33.5 (92.3)	33.3 (91.9)	33.2 (91.8)	33.3 (91.9)	33.1 (91.6)	32.3 (90.1)	33.7 (92.7)
Daily mean °C (°F)	27.4 (81.3)	28.6 (83.5)	29.7 (85.5)	30.7 (87.3)	30.3 (86.5)	29.7 (85.5)	29.2 (84.6)	29.2 (84.6)	28.6 (83.5)	28.4 (83.1)	28.4 (83.1)	27.3 (81.1)	28.9 (84.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	23.4 (74.1)	24.8 (76.6)	26.4 (79.5)	27.2 (81.0)	26.9 (80.4)	26.4 (79.5)	26.1 (79.0)	25.9 (78.6)	25.4 (77.7)	25.2 (77.4)	24.7 (76.5)	23.2 (73.8)	25.4 (77.7)
Record low °C (°F)	9.9 (49.8)	14.9 (58.8)	15.7 (60.3)	19.9 (67.8)	21.1 (70.0)	21.1 (70.0)	21.9 (71.4)	21.2 (70.2)	21.3 (70.3)	18.3 (64.9)	14.2 (57.6)	10.5 (50.9)	9.9 (49.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	23.6 (0.93)	21.4 (0.84)	51.0 (2.01)	93.3 (3.67)	216.8 (8.54)	198.5 (7.81)	189.7 (7.47)	227.1 (8.94)	335.9 (13.22)	288.7 (11.37)	44.6 (1.76)	11.6 (0.46)	1,702.1 (67.01)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)	1.9	1.9	3.4	5.4	12.4	13.4	14.1	15.6	18.0	14.4	3.8	1.0	105.3
Average relative humidity (%)	67.9	70.5	72.6	72.0	74.4	75.2	75.5	76.4	79.3	78.0	68.8	65.6	73.0
Average dew point °C (°F)	20.4 (68.7)	22.2 (72.0)	23.9 (75.0)	24.8 (76.6)	24.9 (76.8)	24.6 (76.3)	24.2 (75.6)	24.2 (75.6)	24.4 (75.9)	23.9 (75.0)	21.7 (71.1)	19.2 (66.6)	23.2 (73.8)
Mean monthly sunshine hours	216.0	215.8	234.2	226.6	196.2	158.4	140.7	128.9	129.6	157.5	194.8	213.5	2,212.2
Average ultraviolet index	10	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	12	11	10	9	11
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization,[55] Feb–May record highs, 1951–2022;[56] Nov–Feb record lows, 1951–2021[53]); May 2023 high temperature record[52]
Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV),[57] Meteo Climat (record),[58]

Districts

Bangkok's fifty districts serve as administrative subdivisions under the authority of the BMA. Thirty-five of these districts lie to the east of the Chao Phraya, while fifteen are on the western bank, known as the Thonburi side of the city. The fifty districts, arranged by district code, are:^[59]

1. Phra Nakhon district
2. Dusit district
3. Nong Chok district
4. Bang Rak district
5. Bang Khen district
6. Bang Kapi district
7. Pathum Wan district
8. Pom Prap Sattru Phai district
9. Phra Khanong district
10. Min Buri district
11. Lat Krabang district
12. Yan Nawa district
13. Samphanthawong district
14. Phaya Thai district
15. Thon Buri district
16. Bangkok Yai district
17. Huai Khwang district
18. Khlong San district
19. Taling Chan district
20. Bangkok Noi district
21. Bang Khun Thian district
22. Phasi Charoen district
23. Nong Khaem district
24. Rat Burana district
25. Bang Phlat district
26. Din Daeng district
27. Bueng Kum district
28. Sathon district
29. Bang Sue district
30. Chatuchak district
31. Bang Kho Laem district
32. Prawet district
33. Khlong Toei district
34. Suan Luang district
35. Chom Thong district
36. Don Mueang district
37. Ratchathewi district
38. Lat Phrao district
39. Watthana district
40. Bang Khae district
41. Lak Si district
42. Sai Mai district
43. Khan Na Yao district
44. Saphan Sung district
45. Wang Thonglang district
46. Khlong Sam Wa district
47. Bang Na district
48. Thawi Watthana district
49. Thung Khru district
50. Bang Bon district

Cityscape

Bangkok's districts often do not accurately represent the functional divisions of its neighbourhoods or land usage. Although urban planning policies date back to the commission of the "Litchfield Plan" in 1960, which set out strategies for land use, transportation and general infrastructure improvements, zoning regulations were not fully implemented until 1992. As a result, the city grew organically throughout the period of its rapid expansion, both horizontally as ribbon developments extended along newly built roads, and vertically, with increasing numbers of high rises and skyscrapers being built in commercial areas.^[60]

The city has grown from its original centre along the river into a sprawling metropolis surrounded by swaths of suburban residential development extending north and south into neighbouring provinces. The highly populated and growing cities of

Samut Prakan are effectively now suburbs of Bangkok. Nevertheless, large agricultural areas remain within the city proper at its eastern and western fringes, and a small number of forest area is found within the city limits: 3,887 rai (6.2 km²; 2.4 sq mi), amounting to 0.4 per cent of city area.^[61] Land use in the city consists of 23 per cent residential use, 24 per cent agriculture, and 30 per cent used for commerce, industry, and government.^[1] The BMA's City Planning Department (CPD) is responsible for planning and shaping further development. It published master plan updates in 1999 and 2006, and a third revision is undergoing public hearings in 2012.^[62]

Royal Plaza

in Dusit District was inspired by King Chulalongkorn's visits to Europe.

Bangkok's historic centre remains the

Royal Plaza and Ratchadamnoen Avenue which leads to it from the Grand Palace, reflect the heavy influence of European architecture at the time. Major government offices line the avenue, as does the Democracy Monument. The area is the site of the country's seat of power as well as the city's most popular tourist landmarks.^[63]

In contrast with the low-rise historic areas, the business district on Si Lom and Sathon Roads in Bang Rak and Sathon Districts teems with skyscrapers. It is the site of many of the country's major corporate headquarters, but also of some of the city's red-light districts. The Siam and Ratchaprasong areas in Pathum Wan are home to some of the largest shopping malls in Southeast Asia. Numerous retail outlets and hotels also stretch along Sukhumvit Road leading southeast through Watthana and Khlong Toei Districts. More office towers line the streets branching off Sukhumvit, especially Asok Montri, while upmarket housing is found in many of its sois ('alley' or 'lane').

Bangkok lacks a single distinct

Siam Station, the only transfer point between the city's then-two elevated train lines (the Sukhumvit and Silom BTS lines).^[64] The Victory Monument in Ratchathewi District is among its most important road junctions, serving over 100 bus lines as well as an elevated train station. From the monument, Phahonyothin and Ratchawithi / Din Daeng Roads respectively run north and east linking to major residential areas. Most of the high-density development areas are within the 113-square-kilometre (44 sq mi) area encircled by the Ratchadaphisek

inner ring road. Ratchadaphisek is lined with businesses and retail outlets, and office buildings also cluster around Ratchayothin Intersection in Chatuchak District to the north. Farther from the city centre, most areas are primarily mid- or low-density residential. The Thonburi side of the city is less developed, with fewer high rises. With the exception of a few secondary urban centres, Thonburi, in the same manner as the outlying eastern districts, consists mostly of residential and rural areas.

While most of Bangkok's streets are fronted by vernacular

Khlong Toei District. In total there were 125 squatted areas.^[67]

Sathon

business district

Parks and green zones

Ratchadamri

and Sukhumvit

Bangkok has several parks, although these amount to a per capita total park area of only 1.82 square metres (19.6 sq ft) in the city proper. Total green space for the entire city is moderate, at 11.8 square metres (127 sq ft) per person. In the more densely built-up areas of the city these numbers are as low as 1.73 and 0.72 square metres (18.6 and 7.8 sq ft) per person.^[68] More recent numbers claim that there is 3.3 square metres (36 sq ft) of green space per person,^[69] compared to an average of 39 square metres (420 sq ft) in other cities across Asia. In Europe, London has 33.4 m² of green space per head.^[70] Bangkokians thus have 10 times less green space than is standard in the region's urban areas.^[71] Green belt areas include about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) of rice paddies and orchards on the eastern and western edges of the city, although their primary purpose is to serve as flood detention basins rather than to limit urban expansion.^[72] Bang Kachao, a 20-square-kilometre (7.7 sq mi) conservation area on an oxbow of the Chao Phraya, lies just across the southern riverbank districts, in Samut Prakan province. A master development plan has been proposed to increase total park area to 4 square metres (43 sq ft) per person.^[68]

One of Bangkok's largest parks is the centrally located

Suanluang Rama IX in the east of the city, and the Chatuchak–Queen Sirikit–Wachirabenchathat park complex in northern Bangkok, which has a combined area of 92 hectares (230 acres).^[73] More parks are expected to be created through the Green Bangkok 2030 project, which aims to leave the city with 10 square metres (110 sq ft) of green space per person, including 30% of the city having tree cover.^[74]

Demography

Historical census populations

Year	Pop.
1919	437,294
1929	713,384
1937	890,453
1947	1,178,881
1960	2,136,435
1970	3,077,361
1980	4,697,071
1990	5,882,411
2000	6,355,144
2010	8,305,218
Source: National Statistical Office (1919–2000,[75] 2010[4])

The city of Bangkok has a population of 8,305,218 according to the 2010 census, or 12.6 per cent of the national population,^[4] while 2020 estimates place the figure at 10.539 million (15.3 per cent).^[5] Roughly half are internal migrants from other Thai provinces;^[76] population registry statistics recorded 5,676,648 residents belonging to 2,959,524 households in 2018.^[77][i] Much of Bangkok's daytime population commutes from surrounding provinces in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, the total population of which is 14,626,225 (2010 census).^[4] Bangkok is a cosmopolitan city; the census showed that it is home to 567,120 expatriates from Asian countries (including 71,024 Chinese and 63,069 Japanese nationals), 88,177 from Europe, 32,241 from the Americas, 5,856 from Oceania and 5,758 from Africa. Migrants from neighbouring countries include 216,528 Burmese, 72,934 Cambodians and 52,498 Lao.^[78] In 2018, numbers show that there are 370,000 international migrants registered with the Department of Employment, more than half of them migrants from Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar.^[76]

Following its establishment as capital city in 1782, Bangkok grew only slightly throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. British diplomat John Crawfurd, visiting in 1822, estimated its population at no more than 50,000.^[79] As a result of Western medicine brought by missionaries as well as increased immigration from both within Siam and overseas, Bangkok's population gradually increased as the city modernized in the late 19th century. This growth became even more pronounced in the 1930s, following the discovery of antibiotics. Although family planning and birth control were introduced in the 1960s, the lowered birth rate was more than offset by increased migration from the provinces as economic expansion accelerated. Only in the 1990s have Bangkok's population growth rates decreased, following the national rate; Thailand had long since become highly centralized around the capital. In 1980, Bangkok's population was fifty-one times that of Hat Yai and Songkhla, the second-largest urban centre at the time, making it the world's most prominent primate city.^[80][81]

Bangkok's Chinatown

. Chinese immigrants historically formed the majority of the city's population.

The majority of Bangkok's population identify as

Bangkok's Chinatown

.

Religion in Bangkok

  Buddhism (92.54%)

  Islam (4.6%)

  Christianity (1.89%)

  Hinduism (0.27%)

  Sikhism (0.08%)

  Confucianism (0.08%)

  Not Religious and Unknown (0.2%)

  Other (0.29%)

The majority (93 per cent) of the city's population is Buddhist, according to the 2010 census. Other religions include Islam (4.6 per cent), Christianity (1.9 per cent), Hinduism (0.3 per cent), Sikhism (0.1 per cent) and Confucianism (0.1 per cent).^[87]

Apart from Yaowarat, Bangkok also has several other distinct ethnic neighbourhoods. The Indian community is centred in

Santa Cruz Church, on the west bank of the river. Likewise, Assumption Cathedral on Charoen Krung Road is among many European-style buildings in the Old Farang Quarter, where European diplomats and merchants lived in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. Nearby, the Haroon Mosque is the centre of a Muslim community. Newer expatriate communities exist along Sukhumvit Road, including the Japanese community near Soi Phrom Phong and Soi Thong Lo

, and the Arab and North African neighbourhood along Soi Nana. Sukhumvit Plaza, a mall on Soi Sukhumvit 12, is popularly known as Korea Town.

Economy

MahaNakhon, the city's tallest building from 2016 to 2018, stands among the skyscrapers of Sathon Road

, one of Bangkok's main financial districts.

Bangkok is the

baht (US$174 billion). This amounted to a per-capita GDP value of 604,421 baht ($19,500), more than twice the national average. The Bangkok Metropolitan Region had a combined output of 7.667 trillion baht ($247 billion).^[88]

Wholesale and retail trade is the largest sector in the city's economy, contributing 24 per cent of Bangkok's gross provincial product. It is followed by manufacturing (14.3 per cent); real estate, renting and business activities (12.4 per cent); transport and communications (11.6 per cent); and financial intermediation (11.1 per cent). Bangkok alone accounts for 48.4 per cent of Thailand's service sector, which in turn constitutes 49 per cent of GDP. When the Bangkok Metropolitan Region is considered, manufacturing is the most significant contributor at 28.2 per cent of the gross regional product, reflecting the density of industry in the Bangkok's neighbouring provinces.[89] The automotive industry based around Greater Bangkok is the largest production hub in Southeast Asia.^[90] Tourism is also a significant contributor to Bangkok's economy, generating 427.5 billion baht ($13.38 billion) in revenue in 2010.^[91]

The

world city, and it is ranked 59th in Z/Yen's Global Financial Centres Index 11.^[93][94]

Bangkok is home to the headquarters of all of Thailand's major commercial banks and financial institutions, as well as the country's largest companies. Many multinational corporations base their regional headquarters in Bangkok due to the lower cost of labour and operations relative to other major Asian business centres. Seventeen Thai companies are listed on the

Forbes 2000, all of which are based in the capital,^[95] including PTT, the only Fortune Global 500 company in Thailand.^[96]

Income inequality is a major issue in Bangkok, especially between relatively unskilled lower-income immigrants from rural provinces and neighbouring countries, and middle-class professionals and business elites. Although absolute poverty rates are low—only 0.64 per cent of Bangkok's registered residents were living under the poverty line in 2010, compared to a national average of 7.75 per cent—economic disparity is still substantial.[97] The city has a Gini coefficient of 0.48, indicating a high level of inequality.^[98]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Bangkok

Bangkok is one of the world's top tourist destinations. Of 162 cities worldwide,

MasterCard ranked Bangkok as the top destination city by international visitor arrivals in its Global Destination Cities Index 2018, ahead of London, with just over 20 million overnight visitors in 2017.^[99] This was a repeat of its 2017 ranking (for 2016).^[100][101] Euromonitor International ranked Bangkok fourth in its Top City Destinations Ranking for 2016.^[102] Bangkok was also named "World's Best City" by Travel + Leisure magazine's survey of its readers for four consecutive years, from 2010 to 2013.^[103]

As the main gateway through which visitors arrive in Thailand, Bangkok is visited by the majority of international tourists to the country. Domestic tourism is also prominent. The Department of Tourism recorded 26,861,095 Thai and 11,361,808 foreign visitors to Bangkok in 2010. Lodgings were made by 15,031,244 guests, who occupied 49.9 per cent of the city's 86,687 hotel rooms.[91] Bangkok also topped the list as the world's most popular tourist destinations in 2017 rankings.^{[104][105][106][107]}

Bangkok's multi-faceted sights, attractions and city life appeal to diverse groups of tourists. Royal palaces and temples as well as several museums constitute its major historical and cultural tourist attractions. The city is also famous for its dynamic nightlife.^{[citation needed]} Although Bangkok's sex tourism scene is well known to foreigners, it is usually not openly acknowledged by locals or the government.^{[citation needed]}

Khao San Road

is lined by budget accommodation, shops and bars catering to tourists.

Among Bangkok's well-known sights are the Grand Palace and major Buddhist temples, including

Royal Barge National Museum. Cruises and boat trips on the Chao Phraya and the canals of Thonburi offer views of some of the city's traditional architecture and ways of life on the waterfront.^[108]

Shopping venues, many of which are popular with both tourists and locals, range from the shopping centres and department stores concentrated in Siam and Ratchaprasong to the sprawling

backpacker tourism

, with its budget accommodation, shops and bars attracting visitors from all over the world.

Bangkok has a reputation overseas as a major destination in the sex industry. Although prostitution is technically illegal and is rarely openly discussed in Thailand, it commonly takes place among massage parlours, saunas and hourly hotels, serving foreign tourists as well as locals. Bangkok has acquired the nickname "Sin City of Asia" for its level of sex tourism.^[109]

Issues often encountered by foreign tourists include scams, overcharging and dual pricing. In a survey of 616 tourists visiting Thailand, 7.79 per cent reported encountering a scam, the most common of which was the gem scam, in which tourists are tricked into buying overpriced jewellery.^[110]

Among Bangkok's well-known sights

• 
  Grand Palace
• 
  The Giant Swing
• 
  Wat Arun

Culture

Siam Discovery during the Bangkok Art Biennale

2018

The culture of Bangkok reflects its position as Thailand's centre of wealth and modernisation. The city has long been the portal of entry of Western concepts and material goods, which have been adopted and blended with Thai values to various degrees by its residents. This is most evident in the lifestyles of the expanding middle class. Conspicuous consumption serves as a display of economic and social status, and shopping centres are popular weekend hangouts.^[111] Ownership of electronics and consumer products such as mobile phones is ubiquitous. This has been accompanied by a degree of secularism, as religion's role in everyday life has rather diminished. Although such trends have spread to other urban centres, and, to a degree, the countryside, Bangkok remains at the forefront of social change.^{[citation needed]}

A distinct feature of Bangkok is the ubiquity of

street vendors selling goods ranging from food items to clothing and accessories. It has been estimated that the city may have over 100,000 hawkers. While the BMA has authorised the practice in 287 sites, the majority of activity in another 407 sites takes place illegally. Although they take up pavement space and block pedestrian traffic, many of the city's residents depend on these vendors for their meals, and the BMA's efforts to curb their numbers have largely been unsuccessful.^[112]

In 2015, however, the BMA, with support from the National Council for Peace and Order (Thailand's ruling military junta), began cracking down on street vendors in a bid to reclaim public space. Many famous market neighbourhoods were affected, including Khlong Thom, Saphan Lek, and the flower market at Pak Khlong Talat. Nearly 15,000 vendors were evicted from 39 public areas in 2016.^[113] While some applauded the efforts to focus on pedestrian rights, others have expressed concern that gentrification would lead to the loss of the city's character and adverse changes to people's way of life.^[114][115]

Festivals and events

King Bhumibol

's birthday.

The residents of Bangkok celebrate many of Thailand's annual festivals. During

Loi Krathong, usually in November, is accompanied by the Golden Mount Fair. New Year celebrations take place at many venues, the most prominent being the plaza in front of CentralWorld. Observances related to the royal family are held primarily in Bangkok. Wreaths are laid at King Chulalongkorn's equestrian statue in the Royal Plaza on 23 October, which is King Chulalongkorn Memorial Day. The previous king's and queen's birthdays, respectively on 5 December and 12 August, are marked as Thailand's national Father's Day and national Mother's Day. These national holidays are celebrated by royal audiences on the day's eve, in which the king or queen gives a speech, and public gatherings on the day of the observance. The king's birthday is also marked by the Royal Guards' parade

.

Vegetarian Festival (September–October) are celebrated widely by the Chinese community, especially in Yaowarat.^[116]

Bangkok was designated as the World Book Capital for the year 2013 by UNESCO.^[117]

Bangkok's first Thai International Gay Pride Festival took place on October 31, 1999.^[118] Pride Parades have also been held in Bangkok, with the first official parade held in 2022 under the name "Bangkok Naruemit Pride Parade". Pride Parades were announced to be a part of Bangkok's "12 monthly festivals" in 2022.^[119]

Media

Bangkok is the centre of

Traditional

As is the national trend,

While sepak takraw can be seen played in open spaces throughout the city, football and other modern sports are now the norm. Western sports introduced during the reign of King Chulalongkorn were originally only available to the privileged, and such status is still associated with certain sports. Golf is popular among the upwardly mobile, and there are several courses in Bangkok. Horse racing, highly popular at the mid-20th century, still takes place at the Royal Bangkok Sports Club.

There are many public

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Bangkok is connected to the rest of the country through the national highway and rail networks, as well as by domestic flights to and from the city's two international airports (Suvarnabhumi and Don Mueang). Its centuries-old maritime transport of goods is still conducted through Khlong Toei Port.

The BMA is largely responsible for overseeing the construction and maintenance of the road network and transport systems through its Public Works Department and Traffic and Transportation Department. However, many separate government agencies are also in charge of the individual systems, and much of transport-related policy planning and funding is contributed to by the national government.

Roads

Road-based transport is the primary mode of travel in Bangkok. Due to the city's organic development, its streets do not follow an organized grid structure. Forty-eight major roads link the different areas of the city, branching into smaller streets and lanes (soi) which serve local neighbourhoods. Eleven bridges over the Chao Phraya link the two sides of the city, while several expressway and motorway routes bring traffic into and out of the city centre and link with nearby provinces. The first expressway in Bangkok is Chaloem Maha Nakhon Expressway, which opened 1981.

Bangkok's rapid growth in the 1980s resulted in sharp increases in vehicle ownership and traffic demand, which have since continued—in 2006 there were 3,943,211 in-use vehicles in Bangkok, of which 37.6 per cent were private cars and 32.9 per cent were motorcycles.^[127] These increases, in the face of limited carrying capacity, caused severe traffic congestion evident by the early 1990s. The extent of the problem is such that the Thai Traffic Police has a unit of officers trained in basic midwifery in order to assist deliveries which do not reach hospital in time.^[128] While Bangkok's limited road surface area (8 per cent, compared to 20–30 per cent in most Western cities) is often cited as a major cause of its traffic jams, other factors, including high vehicle ownership rate relative to income level, inadequate public transport systems, and lack of transportation demand management, also play a role.^[129] Efforts to alleviate the problem have included the construction of intersection bypasses and an extensive system of elevated highways, as well as the creation of several new rapid transit systems. The city's overall traffic conditions, however, remain poor.

Traffic has been the main source of

Although the BMA has created thirty signed bicycle routes along several roads totalling 230 kilometres (140 mi),[134] cycling is still largely impractical, especially in the city centre. Most of these bicycle lanes share the pavement with pedestrians. Poor surface maintenance, encroachment by hawkers and street vendors, and a hostile environment for cyclists and pedestrians, make cycling and walking unpopular methods of getting around in Bangkok.

Buses and taxis

Bangkok has an extensive bus network providing local transit services within the Greater Bangkok area. The

Taxis are ubiquitous in Bangkok, and are a popular form of transport. As of August 2012[update], there are 106,050 cars, 58,276 motorcycles and 8,996 tuk-tuk motorized tricycles cumulatively registered for use as taxis.^[136] Meters have been required for car taxis since 1992, while tuk-tuk fares are usually negotiated. Motorcycle taxis operate from regulated ranks, with either fixed or negotiable fares, and are usually employed for relatively short journeys.

Despite their popularity, taxis have gained a bad reputation for often refusing passengers when the requested route is not to the driver's convenience.^[137] Motorcycle taxis were previously unregulated, and subject to extortion by organized crime gangs. Since 2003, registration has been required for motorcycle taxi ranks, and drivers now wear distinctive numbered vests designating their district of registration and where they are allowed to accept passengers.

Several ride hailing super-apps operate within the city, including Grab (offering car and motorbike options),^[138] and AirAsia in 2022.^[139][140] The Estonian company Bolt launched airport transfer and ride hailing services in 2020. Ride sharing startup MuvMi launched in 2018, and operates an electric tuk-tuk service in 9 areas across the city.^[141][142]

Rail systems

Bangkok is the location of

Bangkok is served by four rapid transit systems: the BTS Skytrain, the MRT, the SRT Red Lines, and the elevated Airport Rail Link. Although proposals for the development of rapid transit in Bangkok had been made since 1975,^[143] it was only in 1999 that the BTS finally began operation.

The BTS consists of two lines,

As of 2024^[update], construction work is ongoing to extend the city-wide transit system's reach according to the Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region, which consists of eight main lines and four feeder lines totaling 508 kilometres (316 mi) to be completed by 2029.

Water transport

Bangkok is one of Asia's busiest air transport hubs. Two commercial airports serve the city, the older Don Mueang International Airport and the newer Suvarnabhumi Airport. Suvarnabhumi, which replaced Don Mueang as Bangkok's main airport after its opening in 2006, served 52,808,013 passengers in 2015,^[150] making it the world's 20th busiest airport by passenger volume. This volume exceeded its designed capacity of 45 million passengers. Don Mueang reopened for domestic flights in 2007,^[151] and resumed international service focusing on low-cost carriers in October 2012.^[152] Suvarnabhumi is undergoing expansion to increase its capacity to 60 million passengers by 2019 and 90 million by 2021.^[153]

Health and education

Education

Bangkok has long been the centre of modern education in Thailand. The first schools in the country were established here in the later 19th century, and there are now 1,351 schools in the city.^[154] The city is home to the country's five oldest universities, Chulalongkorn, Thammasat, Kasetsart, Mahidol and Silpakorn, founded between 1917 and 1943. The city has since continued its dominance, especially in higher education; the majority of the country's universities, both public and private, are located in Bangkok or the Metropolitan Region. Chulalongkorn and Mahidol are the only Thai universities to appear in the top 500 of the QS World University Rankings.^[155] King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, also located in Bangkok, is the only Thai university in the top 400 of the 2012–13 Times Higher Education World University Rankings.^[156]

Over the past few decades the general trend of pursuing a university degree has prompted the founding of new universities to meet the needs of Thai students. Bangkok became not only a place where immigrants and provincial Thais go for job opportunities, but also for a chance to receive a university degree. Ramkhamhaeng University emerged in 1971 as Thailand's first open university; it now has the highest enrolment in the country. The demand for higher education has led to the founding of many other universities and colleges, both public and private. While many universities have been established in major provinces, the Greater Bangkok region remains home to the greater majority of institutions, and the city's tertiary education scene remains over-populated with non-Bangkokians. The situation is not limited to higher education, either. In the 1960s, 60 to 70 per cent of 10- to 19-year-olds who were in school had migrated to Bangkok for secondary education. This was due to both a lack of secondary schools in the provinces and perceived higher standards of education in the capital.^[157] Although this discrepancy has since largely abated, tens of thousands of students still compete for places in Bangkok's leading schools. Education has long been a prime factor in the centralization of Bangkok and will play a vital role in the government's efforts to decentralize the country.

Healthcare

Much of Thailand's medical resources are disproportionately concentrated in the capital. In 2000, Bangkok had 39.6 per cent of the country's doctors and a physician-to-population ratio of 1:794, compared to a median of 1:5,667 among all provinces.

Bangkok has a relatively moderate crime rate when compared to urban counterparts around the world.^[161] Traffic accidents are a major hazard^[162] while natural disasters are rare. Intermittent episodes of political unrest and occasional terrorist attacks have resulted in losses of life.

Although the crime threat in Bangkok is relatively low, non-confrontational crimes of opportunity such as pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, and credit card fraud occur with frequency.^[161] Bangkok's growth since the 1960s has been followed by increasing crime rates partly driven by urbanisation, migration, unemployment and poverty. By the late 1980s, Bangkok's crime rates were about four times that of the rest of the country. The police have long been preoccupied with street crimes ranging from housebreaking to assault and murder.^[163] The 1990s saw the emergence of vehicle theft and organized crime, particularly by foreign gangs.^[164] Drug trafficking, especially that of ya ba methamphetamine pills, is also chronic.^[165][166]

According to police statistics, the most common complaint received by the Metropolitan Police Bureau in 2010 was housebreaking, with 12,347 cases. This was followed by 5,504 cases of motorcycle thefts, 3,694 cases of assault and 2,836 cases of embezzlement. Serious offences included 183 murders, 81 gang robberies, 265 robberies, 1 kidnapping and 9 arson cases. Offences against the state were by far more common, and included 54,068 drug-related cases, 17,239 cases involving prostitution and 8,634 related to gambling.^[167] The Thailand Crime Victim Survey conducted by the Office of Justice Affairs of the Ministry of Justice found that 2.7 per cent of surveyed households reported a member being victim of a crime in 2007. Of these, 96.1 per cent were crimes against property, 2.6 per cent were crimes against life and body, and 1.4 per cent were information-related crimes.^[168]

Political demonstrations and protests are common in Bangkok. The historic uprisings of 1973, 1976 and 1992 are infamously known for the deaths from military suppression. Most events since then have been peaceful, but the series of major protests since 2006 have often turned violent. Demonstrations during March–May 2010 ended in a

Bangkok is faced with multiple problems—including congestion, and especially subsidence and flooding—which have raised the issue of moving the nation's capital elsewhere. The idea is not new: during World War II Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram planned unsuccessfully to relocate the capital to Phetchabun. In the 2000s, the Thaksin Shinawatra administration assigned the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council (NESDC) to formulate a plan to move the capital to Nakhon Nayok province. The 2011 floods revived the idea of moving government functions from Bangkok. In 2017, the military government assigned NESDC to study the possibility of moving government offices from Bangkok to Chachoengsao province in the east.^{[172][173][174]}

International relations

The city's formal international relations are managed by the International Affairs Division of the BMA. Its missions include partnering with other major cities through sister city or friendship agreements, participation and membership in international organizations, and pursuing cooperative activities with the many foreign diplomatic missions based in the city.^[175]

International participation

Bangkok is a member of several international organizations and regional city government networks, including the

Bangkok has made sister city or friendship agreements with:[177]

See also

• Bangkok Metropolitan Region
• Outline of Bangkok
• Thai people
• World's largest cities
• Football in Bangkok

Explanatory notes