Banksia aemula
Wallum banksia | |
---|---|
B. aemula, Wybung Head – Lake Munmorah | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Proteales |
Family: | Proteaceae |
Genus: | Banksia |
Species: | B. aemula
|
Binomial name | |
Banksia aemula | |
Synonyms | |
|
Banksia aemula, commonly known as the wallum banksia,[3] is a shrub of the family Proteaceae. Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney on the Australian east coast, it is encountered as a shrub or a tree to 8 m (26 ft) in coastal heath on deep sandy soil, known as Wallum. It has wrinkled orange bark and shiny green serrated leaves, with green-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescences, appearing in autumn. The flower spikes turn grey as they age and large grey follicles appear. Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody base, known as a lignotuber, after bushfires.
First described by the botanist
Description
Banksia aemula is generally a gnarled shrub or small tree to 8 m (26 ft), although usually smaller.
B. aemula closely resembles Banksia serrata, but the latter can be distinguished by a greyer, not orange-brown, trunk, and adult leaves wider than 2 cm (3⁄4 in) in diameter. Inflorescences of serrata are generally a duller grey-yellow in colour, and have longer (2–3 mm), more fusiform (spindle-shaped) or cylindrical pollen presenters tipping unopened flowers.[9][10] Finally, the follicles are smaller.[11]
Taxonomy
Banksia aemula was called wallum by the Kabi people of the Sunshine Coast, giving rise not only to its common name of wallum banksia but also to the name of the ecological community it grows in.[12] Frederick Manson Bailey reported in 1913 that the indigenous people of Stradbroke Island knew it as mintie.[13] Banyalla is another aboriginal name for the species.[11]
Banksia aemula was collected by Scottish botanist
Under
In 1921,
Placement
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae).[4] Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia, and was divided into three sections. B. aemula was placed in B. sect. Banksia, and this was further divided into nine series, with B. aemula placed in B. ser. Banksia. He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia serrata and then B. ornata, and that the three formed a link with western species. Since Brown's original publication had treated all of Fraser's specimens as
In 1996, Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement retained B. aemula in series Banksia, placing it in B. subser. Banksia along with serrata as its sister taxon (united by their unusual seedling leaves) and ornata as next closest relative.[22] This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series.[23]
Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, B. aemula's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows:
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed the three eastern species to form a group, but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia. Instead, they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae, Ochraceae, Tetragonae (including Banksia elderiana), Banksia lullfitzii and Banksia baueri.[24]
In 2005, Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of
Distribution and habitat
Banksia aemula is found along the east coast of Australia from around 70 km (43 mi) north of Bundaberg in central Queensland down to Sydney.[6] Specifically, its southernmost occurrence is at La Perouse on the northern side of Botany Bay.[27] It is also found on Fraser, Moreton and North Stradbroke Islands. Almost all populations are within a few kilometres of the coast, except for one at Agnes Banks in western Sydney, and two just north and south of Grafton at Coaldale and Glenreagh, and a last around 30 km (19 mi) southwest of Bundaberg.[6]
B. aemula is most commonly found in deep sandy soils, either on dunes or flattish areas which may be seasonally wet. On coastal dunes in southern Queensland, it replaces Banksia serrata, which occupies the same niche to the south.
At the southern end of its range, B. aemula is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, designated an endangered ecological community. This community is found on younger, windblown sands than the heathlands to the north.[31]
The Agnes Banks Woodland in western Sydney has been recognised by the New South Wales Government as an Endangered Ecological Community. Here Banksia aemula is an understory plant in low open woodland, with scribbly gum (Eucalyptus sclerophylla), narrow-leaved apple (Angophora bakeri) and B. serrata as canopy trees, and B. oblongifolia, Conospermum taxifolium, Ricinocarpus pinifolius, Dillwynia sericea and nodding geebung (Persoonia nutans) as other understory species.[32]
On North Stradbroke Island, B. aemula is one of three canopy tree species of Eucalyptus signata-dominated forest 12–15 m (39+1⁄4–49+1⁄4 ft) high, the third species being E. umbra. This forest is found on a ridge 100 m (330 ft) above sea level formed from an ancient sand dune. Here bracken (Pteridium esculentum) dominates the understory. Other tall shrubs associated include Persoonia cornifolia and Acacia concurrens.[5]
Ecology
Most
A 1998 study in
Banksia aemula resprouts from a lignotuber or shoots from epicormic buds after fire.[6] Fire management of Banksia aemula heath in Southeast Queensland recommends 7- to 20-year fire intervals.[38] Intervals of 10–15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, as longer leads to overgrowth by Leptospermum laevigatum.[39] Experimenting with seed germination and early growth of B. aemula showed that phosphorus was toxic to seedlings, inhibiting growth at double normal soil concentrations and causing seedling death at quadruple normal soil concentrations. The addition of potassium or magnesium ameliorated these effects a little although potassium in high concentrations impacted on growth as well. Overall, seedlings grow slowly over the first 21 weeks of life compared with other plant species, the reasons for which are unclear, although it may be that it offers an increased chance of survival in a nutrient- or water-poor environment. Seed was killed by exposure to 150 °C, but survived seven-minute exposure to 100 °C.[40]
A study of coastal heaths on Pleistocene sand dunes around the Myall Lakes found B. aemula grew on ridges (dry heath) and B. oblongifolia on slopes (wet heath), and the two species did not overlap.[41] Manipulation of seedlings in the same study area showed that B. aemula grows longer roots seeking water and that seedlings do grow in wet heath, but it is as yet unclear why the species does not grow in wet heath as well as dry heath.[42] Unlike similar situations with banksia species in Western Australia, the two species did not appear to impact negatively on each other.[43] A field study on seedling recruitment conducted at Broadwater National Park and Dirrawong Reserve on the New South Wales North Coast showed that generally Banksia aemula produced seedlings in low numbers but the attrition rate was low, and that seedlings had a greater survival rate on dry rather than wet heaths.[44] Field work including the experimental planting out of seedlings at Crowdy Bay National Park showed that Banksia aemula seedling roots reach the water table within six months of germination, and that they can germinate in the presence or absence of recent bushfire. The reasons for bradyspory (that is fewer seeds with greater percentage of survival) is unclear, but may be a defence against seed-eating animals.[45] Similarly in field work on North Stradbroke Island, B. aemula was noted to shed its winged seeds over time between (as well as after) fire, and germinate and grow readily with little predation by herbivores.[5]
Two samples of fungus collected from leaves of B. aemula in
Cultivation
In 1788, Banksia aemula was one of the first banksias to be cultivated in England,[11] where it was illustrated in Curtis's Botanical Magazine and its rival, The Botanical Register.[49] Its shiny green leaves, showy flower spikes, huge follicles, and wrinkled bark are attractive horticultural features.[49] It is also a bird- and insect-attracting plant.[50]
Trials in Western Australia and Hawaii have shown B. aemula to be resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback.[51][52] It requires a well-drained slightly acid (pH 5.5–6.5) soil,[49] preferably fairly sandy and a sunny aspect. Summer watering is also prudent, as it does not suffer water stress well.[11] Slow-growing,[53] the plant takes four to six years to flower from seed.[49] It is less commonly grown than Banksia serrata.[9] An investigation into optimum temperatures for germination found a nighttime temperature of 20–28 °C, and a daytime of 24–33 °C gave best results, and recommended summer planting times.[54]
It has also been used as a rootstock for grafting Banksia speciosa, and has potential in bonsai.[49] The red textured timber has been used in cabinet-making.[11]
Cultural references
Although Banksia attenuata was the common banksia in Australian children's author May Gibbs' own childhood in Western Australia, the old flower spikes of Banksia aemula with their large follicles are thought to have been the inspiration for the villains of her Snugglepot and Cuddlepie books, the "Big Bad Banksia Men".[53]
References
- doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T112520054A113306431.en. Retrieved 7 May 2022.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "Banksia aemula". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
- ^ Harden, Gwen J. "Banksia aemula". Royal Botanic Garden Sydney. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i George, Alex S. (1981). "The Genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Nuytsia. 3 (3): 239–473.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 0-644-07124-9. pp. 50–51.
- ^ doi:10.1071/BT97070.
- JSTOR 2260766.
- ^ a b Walters, Brian (November 2007). "Banksia aemula". Australian Native Plants Society. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ISBN 0-86840-302-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-207-17277-3.
- ISBN 0-7022-3450-8.
- ^ Bailey, Frederick Manson (1913). Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants. Brisbane, Queensland: A. J. Cumming, government printer. p. 455.
- ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
- ISBN 0-14-063005-8.
- ^ Meissner, Carl (1856). "Proteaceae". In de Candolle, A. P (ed.). Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis, pars decima quarta (in Latin). Paris: Sumptibus Victoris Masson.
- ^ Bentham, George (1870). "Banksia". Flora Australiensis: A Description of the Plants of the Australian Territory. Vol. 5: Myoporineae to Proteaceae. London: L. Reeve & Co. pp. 541–562.
- ^ a b Salkin, Abraham Isaac (1979). Variation In Banksia in Eastern Australia: An Investigation Using Experimental Methods. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University. pp. 18, 183.
- ^ Kuntze, Otto (1891). Revisio generum plantarum. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Arthur Felix. pp. 581–582.
- JSTOR 4107078.
- JSTOR 4111642.
- .
- ISBN 0-643-06454-0.
- PMID 21665734.
- doi:10.1071/SB04015.
- doi:10.1071/SB06016.
- ISBN 0-7318-1031-7.
- ^ Central Threatened Species Unit (1 September 2005). "Overview of the Wallum Sand Heaths". Threatened species, populations and ecological communities in NSW. Hurstville, NSW: Department of Environment and Conservation, New South Wales Government. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
- .
- ^ Benson, Doug (1986). "The vegetation of the Gosford and Lake Macquarie 1:100 000 vegetation map sheet" (PDF). Cunninghamia. 1 (4): 467–489. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
- ^ "Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub in the Sydney Basin Bioregion" (PDF). National Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales Government. February 2004. Retrieved 6 June 2010.
- ^ Central Threatened Species Unit (1 September 2005). "Agnes Banks Woodland in the Sydney Basin – profile". Threatened species, populations and ecological communities in NSW. Hurstville, NSW: Department of Environment and Conservation, New South Wales Government. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
- S2CID 32550881.
- JSTOR 2258049.
- .
- ^ doi:10.1071/BT00004.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 0-643-05006-X.
- ^ Watson, Penny (July 2001). "The role and use of fire for biodiversity conservation in Southeast Queensland: Fire management guidelines derived from ecological research" (PDF). SEQ Fire and Biodiversity Consortium. National Heritage Trust, Australian Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
- ISBN 978-1-74232-091-5. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
- .
- doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1995.tb00567.x. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
- doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1996.tb00584.x. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
- doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1996.tb00585.x. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2010.
- doi:10.1071/BT94046.
- doi:10.1071/BT03108.
- PMID 21339971.
- PMID 22025808.
- PMID 31551622.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-876473-68-6.
- ^ Birds Australia (29 August 2005). "Bird friendly spaces: Banksia aemula". Birds in Backyards. Birds Australia & Australian Museum. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
- .
- .
- ^ ISBN 0-86417-818-2.
- ^ Heslehurst, M. R. (1979). "Germination of some Banksia species". Australian Plants. 10 (80): 176–177.
External links
- "Banksia aemula R.Br". Flora of Australia Online. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government.
- "Banksia aemula R.Br". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.