Banksia sessilis

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Banksia sessilis
Closeup of cream-yellow inflorescence nestled among prickly green leaves
B. sessilis var. cordata
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Proteales
Family: Proteaceae
Subfamily: Grevilleoideae
Tribe:
Banksieae
Genus: Banksia
Species:
B. sessilis
Binomial name
Banksia sessilis
(
Knight) A.R.Mast & K.R.Thiele
Varieties

B. sessilis var. sessilis
B. sessilis var. cordata
B. sessilis var. cygnorum
B. sessilis var. flabellifolia

Synonyms

Josephia sessilis Knight
Dryandra sessilis (Knight) Domin

Banksia sessilis, commonly known as parrot bush, is a

long-billed black cockatoo and Australian ringneck
eat the seed. The life cycle of Banksia sessilis is adapted to regular bushfires. Killed by fire and regenerating by seed afterwards, each shrub generally produces many flowerheads and a massive amount of seed. It can recolonise disturbed areas, and may grow in thickets.

Banksia sessilis has a somewhat complicated

Joseph Knight had published the name Josephia sessilis in 1809, which had precedence due to its earlier date, and the specific name was formalised in 1924. Four varieties are recognised. It is a prickly plant with little apparent horticultural potential; none of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation. A profuse producer of nectar, B. sessilis is valuable to the beekeeping
industry.

Description

  • A whorl of leaves surround a whorl of narrow brown involucral bracts, which in turn surround a dark brown structure that looks a bit like an open mouth, with which is a light brown winged structure, the seed separate.
    Open follicles with seed separators
  • A woody structure with two flared wings
    Seed separator
  • A roughly semi-circular brown seed, comprising a thicker, dark brown part, which is the seed itself, surrounded by a thinner, light brown part, which is the seed wing
    Seed

Banksia sessilis grows as an upright shrub or small tree up to 6 m (20 ft) high, without a lignotuber. In most varieties, new stems are covered in soft, fine hairs that are lost with maturity; but new stems of B. sessilis var. flabellifolia are usually hairless. Leaves are blue-green or dark green. Their shape differs by variety: in var. cygnorum and var. flabellifolia they are wedge-shaped, with teeth only near the apex; in var. cordata they are wedge-shaped, but with teeth along the entire margin; and in var. sessilis they are somewhat broader at the base, sometimes almost oblong in shape. Leaf size ranges from 2 to 6 cm (1 to 2.5 in) in length, and 0.8–4 cm (0.31–1.57 in) in width. They may be sessile (that is, growing directly from the stem without a petiole) or on a petiole up to 0.5 cm (0.20 in) long.[2][3]

The

style. The style end is initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but breaks free at anthesis. In B. sessilis the perianth is straight, 20 to 32 mm (0.79 to 1.26 in) long, and pale yellow. The style is slightly shorter, also straight, and cream-coloured. Thus in B. sessilis, unlike many other Banksia species, the release of the style at anthesis does not result in a showy flower colour change.[2][3] One field study found that anthesis took place over four days, with the outer flowers opening first and moving inwards.[4]

Flowering mostly takes place from July to November; var. sessilis can start as early as May. After flowering, the flower parts wither and fall away, and up to four follicles develop in the receptacle (the base of the flower head). Young follicles are covered in a fine fur, but this is lost as they mature. Mature follicles are

ovoid in shape, and measure 1–1.5 cm (0.39–0.59 in) in length. Most follicles open as soon as they are ripe, revealing their contents: a woody seed separator and up to two winged seeds.[2][3]

Discovery and naming

Old painting of segment of plant with leaves and blooms on white background with several anatomical cross sections of flower parts beneath
Ferdinand Bauer's painting of B. sessilis, based on drawings made by him at King George Sound in December 1801

Specimens of B. sessilis were first collected by Scottish surgeon

King George Sound in September and October 1791. No firm location or collection date can be ascribed to Menzies' specimens, as their labels simply read "New Holland, King Georges Sound, Mr. Arch. Menzies",[5] and Menzies' journal indicates that he collected over a wide area, visiting a different location every day from 29 September to 8 October.[6] In addition to B. sessilis, Menzies collected plant material of B. pellaeifolia, and seeds of at least four more Banksia species.[7] This was therefore an important early collection for the genus, only seven species of which had previously been collected.[8][9]

Menzies' seed specimens were sent to England from Sydney in 1793, but his plant material remained with him for the duration of the voyage, during which some material was lost. On his return to England in 1795, the surviving specimens were deposited into the herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks, where they lay undescribed for many years.[9]

The next collection was made in December 1801, when King George Sound was visited by

botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, and gardener Peter Good. All three men gathered material for Brown's specimen collection,[7] including specimens of B. sessilis,[10] but neither Brown's nor Good's diary can be used to assign a precise location or date for their discovery of the species.[11][12] Good also made a separate seed collection, which included B. sessilis,[13] and the species was drawn by Bauer. Like nearly all of his field drawings of Proteaceae, Bauer's original field sketch of B. sessilis was destroyed in a Hofburg fire in 1945.[14] A painting based on the drawing survives, however, at the Natural History Museum in London.[15]

On returning to England in 1805, Brown began preparing an account of his Australian plant specimens. In September 1808, with Brown's account still far from finished, Swedish botanist

On the Proteaceae of Jussieu. Among the eighteen new genera presented was one that Brown named Josephia in honour of Banks.[16]

Brown's paper was approved for printing in May 1809, but did not appear in print until March the following year. In the meantime,

priority of publication,[19] Brown's name was accepted, and remained the current name for over a century.[20]

Old plate of segment of plant with leaves and blooms on parchment-coloured background
In 1813, Curtis's Botanical Magazine featured a colour plate of a painting by Sydenham Edwards, modelled on a specimen grown from seed collected by Peter Good in 1801–02.

Another significant early collection was the apparent discovery of the species at the

James Stirling. Among the plants Fraser found growing on the south side of the river entrance was "a beautiful species of Dryandra",[21] which was probably this species.[22]

Over the course of the 19th century, the principle of priority in naming gradually came to be accepted by botanists, as did the need for a mechanism by which names in current usage could be conserved against archaic or obscure prior names. By the 1920s, Dryandra R.Br. was effectively conserved against Josephia Knight; a mechanism for formal conservation was put in place in 1933. Brown's specific name, however, was not conserved, and Karel Domin overturned Dryandra floribunda R.Br. by transferring Knight's name into Dryandra as Dryandra sessilis (Knight) Domin in 1924.[23] This name was current until 2007, when all Dryandra species were transferred into Banksia by Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele.[24] The full citation for the current name is thus Banksia sessilis (Knight) A.R.Mast & K.R.Thiele.[25]

Common names

The first common names for this species were literal translations of the scientific names. When published as Josephia sessilis in 1809, it was given the common name sessile Josephia.[17] Brown did not offer a common name when he published Dryandra floribunda in 1810, but later that year the Hortus Kewensis translated it as many flowered dryandra.[13] This name was also used when the plant was featured in Curtis's Botanical Magazine in 1813.[26] In Australia, the names prickly banksia and shaving-brush flower were offered up by Emily Pelloe in 1921, the latter because "when in bud the flower very much resembles a shaving-brush".[27] Shaving-brush flower was still in use as late as the 1950s.[28] The name holly-leaved dryandra was used when the plant was featured as part of a series of articles in the Western Mail of 1933–34,[29] and this was taken up by William Blackall in 1954,[30] and was still in use as late as 1970.[31] Meanwhile, Gardner used the name parrot bush in 1959,[32] a name derived from the observation that the blooms attract parrots,[33] by which the species was already "well-known to bee-keepers".[34] This name was widely adopted, and since 1970 has been in almost exclusive usage.[31]

The only indigenous names reported for the plant are Budjan and But-yak. These were published by Ian Abbott in his 1983 Aboriginal Names for Plant Species in South-western Australia, with Abbott suggesting that the latter name should be preferred, but with the

A Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language of the Aborigines, which in fact attributes these names to the species Dryandra fraseri (now Banksia fraseri).[36]
It is unclear whether Abbott has corrected Moore's error, or introduced an error of his own.

Taxonomy

Infrageneric placement

Brown's 1810 monograph did not include an infrageneric classification of Dryandra,

Ilex (holly).[40] In 1870, George Bentham published a revised arrangement in his Flora Australiensis. Bentham retained section Eudryandra, but abandoned almost all of Meissner's unranked groups, including § Ilicinae. D. floribunda was instead placed in D. ser. Floribundae along with four other species with small, mostly terminal flowers, left exposed by their having unusually short floral leaves.[41]

Bentham's arrangement stood for over a hundred years, eventually replaced in 1996 by the arrangement of Alex George. Section Eudryandra was promoted to subgenus rank, but replaced by the autonym D. subg. Dryandra. D. sessilis, as this species was now called, was retained in D. ser. Floribundae, but alone, as the series was redefined as containing only those taxa that apparently lack floral bracts altogether.[5] The placement of D. sessilis in George's arrangement, with 1999[42] and 2005[43] amendments, may be summarised as follows:

  • The bud is surrounded by eight leaves and is covered with light green, polygonal patches surrounded by white space.
    Inflorescence bud, closed
  • The patches have retreated to the margins of the bud and many light green, mostly squarish structures become visible from beneath them.
    Inflorescence bud, beginning to open
  • The patches have disappeared completely and the entire inflorescence consists of the light green structures.
    Inflorescence bud, opening
  • Many straight, fluffy white cylinders with green ends extend from the bud.
    Inflorescence fully open, flowers closed
  • Most of the cylinders are curved, all are much thinner, and some are reddish in color.
    Flowers open
  • The inflorescence consists of confused white to reddish structures, with some yellowish cylinders extending out of it.
    Flowers withering, soon to fall
Dryandra (now Banksia ser. Dryandra)
D. subg. Dryandra
D. ser. Floribundae
D. sessilis (now B. sessilis)
D. sessilis var. sessilis (now B. sessilis var. sessilis)
D. sessilis var. flabellifolia (now B. sessilis var. flabellifolia)
D. sessilis var. cordata (now B. sessilis var. cordata)
D. sessilis var. cygnorum (now B. sessilis var. cygnorum)
D. ser. Armatae
D. ser. Marginatae
D. ser. Folliculosae
D. ser. Acrodontae
D. ser. Capitellatae
D. ser. Ilicinae
D. ser. Dryandra
D. ser. Foliosae
D. ser. Decurrentes
D. ser. Tenuifoliae
D. ser. Runcinatae
D. ser. Triangulares
D. ser. Aphragma
D. ser. Ionthocarpae
D. ser. Inusitatae
D. ser. Subulatae
D. ser. Gymnocephalae
D. ser. Plumosae
D. ser. Concinnae
D. ser. Obvallatae
D. ser. Pectinatae
D. ser. Acuminatae
D. ser. Niveae
D. subg. Hemiclidia
D. subg. Diplophragma

George's arrangement remained current until 2007, when Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele transferred Dryandra into Banksia. They also published B. subg. Spathulatae for the Banksia taxa having spoon-shaped cotyledons, thus redefining B. subg. Banksia as comprising those that do not. They were not ready, however, to tender an infrageneric arrangement encompassing Dryandra, so as an interim measure they transferred Dryandra into Banksia at series rank. This minimised the nomenclatural disruption of the transfer, but also caused George's rich infrageneric arrangement to be set aside. Thus under the interim arrangements implemented by Mast and Thiele, B. sessilis is placed in B. subg. Banksia, ser. Dryandra.[24]

Varieties

A green, upright shrub in a field with yellow grass, with other green plants in the background
Typical habit: a small upright shrub

Four varieties are recognised:

  • B. sessilis var. sessilis is an autonym that encompasses the type material of the species. This is the most widespread variety, occurring from Regans Ford and Moora in the north, south-east to Albany, and inland as far as Wongan Hills, Pingelly and Kulin. Its blue-green leaves are cuneate (wedge-shaped) or oblong, and are usually two to three centimetres long but may reach five.[2]
  • taxonomic synonym of B. sessilis var. cordata. It has larger inflorescences than var. sessilis, as well as larger dark green, rather than blue green leaves. It is found in the state's far southwest, between Capes Leeuwin and Naturaliste, and east to Walpole, and grows on sandy soils over limestone.[2]
  • Fremantle, and east to Lake Indoon and Kings Park.[2]
  • Geraldton and Northampton. There are some scattered records further south towards Moora. Its specific name is derived from the Latin flabellum "fan" and folium "leaf". Its leaves are fan shaped, with a long, toothless lower margin, and a toothed end. Its stems are hairless, unlike the other varieties.[2]

Distribution and habitat

A map of the biogeographic regions of Western Australia, showing the range of Banksia sessilis. It occupies the southwestern corner of Australia.
Distribution of B. sessilis, shown on a map of Western Australia's biogeographic regions.[44]

Banksia sessilis is

Bremer Bay, and inland to Wongan Hills and Kulin.[42] It thus spans a wide range of climates, occurring in all but the semi-arid areas well inland. It is also absent from the Karri forest in the cool, wet, southwest corner of the province, but even there, B. sessilis var. cordata occurs along the coast.[2]

The species tolerates a range of soils, requiring only that its soil be well-drained. Like most dryandras, it grows well in

heath, tall shrubland, woodland and open forest. It is a common understorey plant in drier areas of Jarrah forest,[2] and forms thickets on limestone soils of the Swan Coastal Plain.[45] Banksia sessilis sets a large amount of seed and is an aggressive coloniser of disturbed and open areas;[46] for example, it has been recorded colonising gravel pits in the Darling Scarp.[47]

Nothing is known of the conditions that affect its distribution, as its biogeography is as yet unstudied. An assessment of the potential impact of climate change on this species found that its range is likely to contract by half in the face of severe change, but unlikely to change much under less severe scenarios.[48]

Ecology

As food

The nectar of B. sessilis is an important component of the diet of several species of honeyeater. In one study, B. sessilis was found to be the main source of nectar for all six species studied, namely the tawny-crowned honeyeater (Gliciphila melanops), white-cheeked honeyeater (Phylidonyris niger), western spinebill (Acanthorhynchus superciliosus), brown honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta), brown-headed honeyeater (Melithreptus brevirostris), and black honeyeater (Certhionyx niger). Moreover, B. sessilis played an important role in their distributions, with species that feed only on nectar occurring only where B. sessilis occurs, and remaining for longest at sites where B. sessilis is most abundant.[49] Other honeyeaters that have been recorded feeding on B. sessilis include the red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata), western wattlebird (A. lunulata), and New Holland honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae).[50] Furthermore, a study of bird species diversity in wandoo woodland around Bakers Hill found that honeyeater species and numbers were much reduced in forest that lacked a Banksia sessilis understory; the plant is a key source of nectar and insects during the winter months.[51] A field study in jarrah forest 9 km south of Jarrahdale, where B. sessilis grows in scattered clumps, found that western wattlebirds and New Holland honeyeaters sought out groups of plants with the greatest numbers of new inflorescences, particularly those one or two days after anthesis, where nectar yield was highest. The birds likely recognises these by visual clues.[4]

Banksia sessilis is also a source of food for the

long-billed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus baudinii), which tear open the follicles and consume the seeds.[53]
The introduced
banksia bee H. alcyoneus), two of Leioproctus, and a Lasioglossum.[55][56]

Life cycle

Honeyeaters are clearly the most important

pollen presenters while foraging for nectar; experiments have shown that some of this pollen may be subsequently deposited on stigmas during later foraging.[57]

The flowers of B. sessilis have adaptations that encourage

mixed-mating system.[57]

Side view of a bug, with green underside and brown back, inside an open follicle
A bug hides inside an open follicle.

The species is a prolific flowerer, and this, combined with the very high outcrossing rates, results in massive seed output. In one study, the average number of seeds produced per B. sessilis plant was 622, compared with an average of two for

serotinous: the vast majority of seeds are released spontaneously in autumn, even in the absence of fire.[54] The degree of serotiny is a matter of some contradiction in the scientific literature: it has been treated as "serotinous",[58] "weakly serotinous"[59] and "non-serotinous".[54][60] Regardless of the terminology used, the massive spontaneous seed output of B. sessilis is its primary survival strategy, and is so effective the species has a reputation as an excellent coloniser.[54] However, this strategy, together with its relatively long juvenile period, makes it vulnerable to overly frequent fire.[61]

Seeds of B. sessilis are short-lived, and must germinate in the winter following their release, or they die.[54] They are also very sensitive to heating, and thus killed by bushfire; in one study, just 30 seconds in boiling water reduced the germination rate from 85% to 22%, and not a single seed survived one minute of boiling.[58]

Like most other

trans-aconitate, that act as acid phosphatase, allowing the absorption of nutrients from nutrient-poor soils, such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia.[62][63]

Disease

Banksia sessilis is highly susceptible to dieback caused by the introduced plant

indicator species for the presence of the disease.[64] Most highly susceptible species quickly become locally extinct in infected areas, and in the absence of hosts the disease itself eventually dies out. However, B. sessilis, being an aggressive coloniser of disturbed and open ground, often colonises old disease sites. The new colonies are themselves infected, and thus P. cinnamomi survives at these sites indefinitely.[46][64]

The application of

phosphite inhibits growth of P. cinnamomi in B. sessilis, but does not kill the pathogen. In one study, a foliar spray containing phosphite inhibited the growth of P. cinnamomi by over 90% in plants infected with B. sessilis two weeks after spraying, and by 66% in plants infected one year after spraying; yet most plants infected shortly before or after spraying were dead 100 days later, while nearly all plants infected seven months later spraying survived a further 100 days. Phosphite is not known to affect plant growth,[65] but has been shown to reduce pollen fertility: one study recorded fertility reductions of up to 50%, and, in a separate experiment, fertility reductions that persisted for more than a year.[66]

Infection of coastal stands of B. sessilis by the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina has also been recorded. The apparent infection rate of 0.31 is quite slow compared to the progress of other Armillaria species through pine plantations.[67]

Cultivation

History

It is not known whether the seed collection sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, by Menzies in 1793 included seeds of B. sessilis, but if it did then it did not germinate.[9] The species was successfully germinated, however, from Good's seed, which was sent from Sydney on 6 June 1802 and arrived at Kew the following year.[13] According to Brown's notes it was flowering at Kew by May 1806,[68] and in 1810 it was reported in the second edition of Hortus Kewensis as flowering "most part of the Year".[13] In 1813 a flowering specimen from the nursery of Malcolm and Sweet was featured as Plate 1581 in Curtis's Botanical Magazine.[26]

Painting of segment of plant showing inflorescences in bud and full flower
Edgar Dell's painting of B. sessilis, first published in The Western Mail in 1933 or 1934

By the 1830s the species was in cultivation in continental Europe. It was recorded as being cultivated in the garden of

Utrecht and Haarlem in the Netherlands in the 1840s and 1850s. By this time, however, English gardeners had already begun to lose interest in the Proteaceae, and by the end of the 19th century European interest in the cultivation of Proteaceae was virtually non-existent.[9]

In Australia, there was little interest in the cultivation of Australian plants until the mid-20th century, despite a long-standing appreciation of their beauty as

How to know Western Australian wildflowers, but this publication was restricted to plant identification.[30] The species was discussed and illustrated in the 1959 Wildflowers of Western Australia, and in the 1973 Flowers and plants of Western Australia, but these books did not provide cultivation advice either.[32][71]

Possibly the first published information on the cultivation of Dryandra appeared in the magazine

Australian Plants in June and September 1961.[9] D. sessilis was among the species treated, but as there was not yet any experimental data on cultivation, information was restricted to its aesthetic qualities and the soil in which it naturally occurs.[72][73]

From its inception in 1962, the

Kings Park and Botanic Garden undertook extensive research into the cultivation of native plants, resulting in two early publications that mentioned the cultivation potential of B. sessilis.[9] In 1965, John Stanley Beard published Descriptive catalogue of Western Australian plants, "a work of reference in which the horticultural characteristics of the plants concerned could be looked up by the staff", which described D. sessilis as an erect shrub with pale yellow flowers appearing from May to October, growing in sand and gravel.[74] Five years later, Arthur Fairall published West Australian native plants in cultivation. This presented largely the same information as Beard's catalogue, adding only that the species flowers well in its third season.[75]

Current knowledge

According to current knowledge, B. sessilis is an extremely hardy plant that grows in a range of soils and aspects, so long as it is given good drainage,[33] and tolerates both drought and moderate frost. Unlike many dryandras, it grows well on limestone (alkaline) soils.[2] It flowers very heavily and is an excellent producer of honey. It attracts birds, and is also popular with beekeepers.[33] However, its size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens, and if given an ideal situation it may produce a great many seedlings.[2] It is propagated only from seed, as propagating it from cuttings has proven virtually impossible.[76] Germination takes about five or six weeks, and plants may take two years to flower.[2]

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