Umayyad dynasty
Umayyad dynasty بَنُو أُمَيَّةَ الأمويون | |
---|---|
Parent family | Banu Abd-Shams of the Quraysh |
Country | Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Al-Andalus (756–1031) |
Place of origin | Mecca, Arabia |
Founded | 661 |
Founder | Mu'awiya I |
Titles | Caliph (Umayyad Caliphate) Emir (Emirate of Cordoba) Caliph (Caliphate of Cordoba) |
Historical Arab states and dynasties |
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The Umayyad dynasty (
Umayyad authority was challenged in the
History
Pre-Islamic origins
The Umayyads, or Banu Umayya, were a clan of the larger
Umayya succeeded Abd Shams as the qa'id (wartime commander) of the Meccans.[8] This position was likely an occasional political post whose holder oversaw the direction of Mecca's military affairs in times of war, instead of an actual field command.[8] This early experience in military leadership proved instructive, as later Umayyads were known for possessing considerable political and military organizational skills.[8] The historian Giorgio Levi Della Vida suggests that information in the early Arabic sources about Umayya, as with all the ancient progenitors of the tribes of Arabia, "be accepted with caution", but "that too great skepticism with regard to tradition would be as ill-advised as absolute faith in its statements".[7] Della Vida asserts that since the Umayyads who appear at the beginning of Islamic history in the early 7th century were no later than third-generation descendants of Umayya, the latter's existence is highly plausible.[7]
By circa 600, the Quraysh had developed trans-Arabian trade networks, organizing caravans to Syria in the north and Yemen in the south.[5] The Banu Umayya and the Banu Makhzum, another prominent Qurayshite clan, dominated these trade networks. They developed economic and military alliances with the nomadic Arab tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, gaining them a degree of political power in Arabia.[9]
Opposition to Islam and adoption of Islam
When the Islamic prophet
Abu Sufyan and his sons, along with most of the Umayyads, embraced Islam toward the end of Muhammad's life, following the Muslim conquest of Mecca.[13] To secure the loyalty of prominent Umayyad leaders, including Abu Sufyan, Muhammad offered them gifts and positions of importance in the nascent Muslim state.[13] He installed another Umayyad, Attab ibn Asid ibn Abi al-Is, as the first governor of Mecca.[15] Although Mecca retained its paramountcy as a religious center, Medina continued to serve as the political center of the Muslims. Abu Sufyan and the Banu Umayya relocated to the city to maintain their growing political influence.[16]
Muhammad's death in 632 created a succession crisis, while nomadic tribes throughout Arabia that had embraced Islam defected from Medina's authority.
Abu Bakr's successor, Caliph
Empowerment by Caliph Uthman
Caliph Umar died in 644 and was succeeded by Uthman ibn Affan, a wealthy Umayyad merchant, early convert to Islam, and son-in-law and close companion of Muhammad.[23] Uthman initially kept his predecessors' appointees in their provincial posts, but gradually replaced many with Umayyads or his maternal kinsmen from the Banu Umayya's parent clan, the Banu Abd Shams.[24] Mu'awiya, who had been appointed governor of Syria by Umar, retained his post. Two Umayyads, al-Walid ibn Uqba and Sa'id ibn al-As, were successively appointed to Kufa, one of the two main Arab garrisons and administrative centers in Iraq. Uthman's cousin, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, became his chief adviser.[24] Although a prominent member of the clan, Uthman is not considered part of the Umayyad dynasty because he was chosen by consensus (shura) among the inner circle of Muslim leadership and never attempted to nominate an Umayyad as his successor.[25] Nonetheless, as a result of Uthman's policies, the Umayyads regained a measure of the power they had lost after the Muslim conquest of Mecca.[25]
The
Dynastic rule over the Caliphate
Sufyanid period
The reunification of the Muslim community under Mu'awiya's leadership marked the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate.[31] Based on the accounts of the traditional Muslim sources, Hawting writes that:
... the Umayyads, leading representatives of those who had opposed the Prophet [Muhammad] until the latest possible moment, had within thirty years of his death reestablished their position to the extent that they were now at the head of the community which he had founded.[31]
In contrast to Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyads, Mu'awiya's power did not rely on the clan and, with minor exceptions, he did not appoint Umayyads to the major provinces or his court in Damascus.[32][33] He largely limited their influence to Medina, where most of the Umayyads remained headquartered.[32][34] The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful of Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of the political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[35] Mu'awiya attempted to weaken the clan by provoking internal divisions.[36] Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad, Sa'id ibn al-As. The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused. Marwan was restored in 674 and also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's house.[37] Mu'awiya appointed his own nephew, al-Walid ibn Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, in Marwan's place in 678.[38]
In 676, Mu'awiya installed his son, Yazid I, as his successor. The move was unprecedented in Muslim politics—earlier caliphs had been elected by popular support in Medina or by the consultation of the senior companions of Muhammad.[39] Mu'awiya's Umayyad kinsmen in Medina, including Marwan and Sa'id, accepted Mu'awiya's decision, albeit disapprovingly.[40] The principle opposition emanated from Husayn ibn Ali, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, all prominent Medina-based sons of earlier caliphs or close companions of Muhammad.[41]
Yazid acceded in 680 and three years later faced a revolt by the people of Medina and Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca. Yazid's cousin, Uthman ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Sufyan, and the Umayyads residing in Medina, led by Marwan, were expelled.[42] Yazid dispatched his Syrian army to reassert his authority in the Hejaz and relieve his kinsmen.[43][44] The Umayyads of Medina joined the Syrians in the assault against the rebels in Medina and defeated them at the Battle of al-Harra.[43] The Syrians proceeded to besiege Mecca, but withdrew upon the death of Yazid.[45] Afterward, Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and expelled the Umayyads of the Hejaz a second time. They relocated to Palmyra or Damascus, where Yazid's son and successor, Mu'awiya II, ruled at a time when most provinces of the Caliphate discarded Umayyad authority.[43]
Early Marwanid period
After Mu'awiya II died in 684, the junds of Palestine, Homs and Qinnasrin recognized Ibn al-Zubayr, while loyalist tribes in Damascus and al-Urdunn scrambled to nominate an Umayyad as caliph. The Banu Kalb, lynchpins of Sufyanid rule, nominated Yazid's surviving sons
Abd al-Malik concentrated power into the hands of the Umayyad dynasty. At one point, his brothers or sons held nearly all governorships of the provinces and Syria's districts.
After his brother Abd al-Aziz's death, Abd al-Malik designated his eldest son,
Rule over al-Andalus
A survivor of the Abbasid massacres of the Umayyad family,
Branches
In the early 7th century, prior to their conversion to Islam, the main branches of the Umayyads were the A'yas and the Anabisa.
Two of the sons of Abu al-As, Affan and al-Hakam, each fathered future caliphs, Uthman and Marwan I, respectively.[8] From the latter's descendants, known as the Marwanids, came the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus who reigned successively between 684 and 750, and then the Cordoba-based emirs and caliphs of Muslim Spain, who held office until 1031.[8] Other than those who had escaped to al-Andalus, most of the Marwanids were killed in the Abbasid purges of 750. However, a number of them settled in Egypt and Iran, where one of them, Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, authored the famous source of Arab history, the Kitab al-Aghani, in the 10th century.[8] Uthman, the third Rashidun caliph, who ruled between 644 and 656, left several descendants, some of whom served political posts under the Umayyad caliphs.[8] From the Abu al-Is line came the politically important family of Asid ibn Abi al-Is, whose members served military and gubernatorial posts under various Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs.[8] The al-As line produced Sa'id ibn al-As, who served as one of Uthman's governors in Kufa.[8]
The most well-known family of the Anabisa branch was that of Harb's son Abu Sufyan Sakhr.
List of Umayyad rulers
Syria-based Umayyad caliphs
Umayyad Caliphate | |
Caliph | Reign |
---|---|
Muʿāwiya I ibn Abī Sufyān
|
28 July 661 – 27 April 680 |
Yazīd I ibn Muʿāwiya | 27 April 680 – 11 November 683 |
Muʿāwiya II ibn Yazīd
|
11 November 683– June 684 |
Marwān I ibn al-Ḥakam | June 684– 12 April 685 |
ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān | 12 April 685 – 8 October 705 |
Al-Walīd I ibn ʿAbd al-Malik | 8 October 705 – 23 February 715 |
Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd al-Malik | 23 February 715 – 22 September 717 |
ʿUmar II ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz | 22 September 717 – 4 February 720 |
Yazīd II ibn ʿAbd al-Malik | 4 February 720 – 26 January 724 |
Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik | 26 January 724 – 6 February 743 |
Al-Walīd II ibn Yazīd | 6 February 743 – 17 April 744 |
Yazīd III ibn al-Walīd | 17 April 744 – 4 October 744 |
Ibrāhīm ibn al-Walīd | 4 October 744 – 4 December 744 |
Marwān II ibn Muḥammad | 4 December 744 – 25 January 750 |
Dynasty ended in the Umayyad Caliphate after overthrow by the Abbasids |
Umayyad emirs and caliphs of Córdoba
Rulers of al-Andalus | |
Emirate of Córdoba | |
Emir | Reign |
---|---|
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I ibn Muʿāwiya al-ʾUmawī | 15 May 756 – 30 September 788 |
Hishām I ibn ʿAbd al-Rahmān al-ʾUmawī | 6 October 788 – 16 April 796 |
Al-Ḥakam I ibn Hishām al-ʾUmawī | 12 June 796 – 21 May 822 |
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān II ibn al-Ḥakam al-ʾUmawī
|
21 May 822 – 852 |
Muḥammad I ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-ʾUmawī | 852–886 |
Al-Munḏhir ibn Muḥammad al-ʾUmawī | 886–888 |
Abdullah ibn Muḥammad al-ʾUmawī
|
888 — 15 October 912 |
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III ibn Muḥammad al-ʾUmawī | 16 October 912 – 16 January 929 |
Name change after Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself Caliph of Córdoba | |
Caliphate of Córdoba | |
Caliph | Reign |
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh | 16 January 929 – 15 October 961 |
Al-Ḥakam II al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh | 15 October 961 – 16 October 976 |
Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh | 16 October 976 – 1009 |
Muḥammad II al-Mahdī bi'llāh | 1009 |
Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh | 1009–1010 |
Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh | 1010 – 19 April 1013 |
Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh | 1013–1016 |
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān IV al-Murtaḍā bi-llāh | 1017 |
Dynasty ended by the Hammudid dynasty (1017–1023) | |
Caliphate of Córdoba (Restored) | |
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān V al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh | 1023–1024 |
Muhammad III al-Mustakfi bi-llāh | 1024–1025 |
Interregnum of the Hammudid dynasty (1025–1026) | |
Caliphate of Córdoba (Restored) | |
Hisham III al-Muʿtad bi-llāh | 1026–1031 |
Dynasty overthrown |
Genealogical chart of Umayyad rulers
Family tree of Umayyad rulers, and relationship to the Abbasid caliphs
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See also
References
- ISBN 9781420508024. Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
- ISBN 9780863565588. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-10-04. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
- ]
- ^ Francis Preston Venable (1894). A Short History of Chemistry. Heath. p. 21.
- ^ a b c Watt 1986, p. 434.
- ^ a b Hawting 2000a, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b c Della Vida 2000, p. 837.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Della Vida 2000, p. 838.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 51.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 53.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 54.
- ^ a b c d Hawting 2000, p. 841.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 41.
- ^ Poonawala 1990, p. 8.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 82.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 45.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 114.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 61.
- ^ Ahmed 2010, p. 106.
- ^ a b Ahmed 2010, p. 107.
- ^ a b Hawting 2000a, p. 26.
- ^ a b Hawting 2000a, p. 27.
- ^ Hawting 2000a, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Hawting 2000a, p. 28.
- ^ Hawting 2000a, pp. 28–29.
- ^ a b Hawting 2000a, p. 30.
- ^ a b c Hawting 2000a, p. 31.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2004, p. 83.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 135.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Bosworth 1991, pp. 621–622.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 136.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 345, note 90.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 346.
- ^ Lewis 2002, p. 67.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Donner 2012, p. 177.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 152–156.
- ^ a b c Bosworth 1991, p. 622.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 154.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 90.
- ^ Gibb 1960, p. 76.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 200.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 221–222.
- ^ a b Bacharach 1996, p. 30.
- ^ Becker 1960, p. 42.
- ^ Crone 1980, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 227.
- ^ Kennedy 2016, p. 87.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 167, 222.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1927, p. 222.
- ^ Ahmed 2010, p. 118.
- ^ Crone 1980, p. 126.
- ^ Kennedy 2002, p. 127.
- ^ Eisener 1997, p. 822.
- ^ Shaban 1971, pp. 130–131.
- ^ a b Scales 1994, p. 113.
- ^ Scales 1994, pp. 113–114.
- ISBN 978-0-02-911574-9. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-10-26. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
- ^ Della Vida 2000, pp. 838–839.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Della Vida 2000, p. 839.
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