Baroque

The Baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, deep color, grandeur, and surprise to achieve a sense of awe. The style began at the start of the 17th century in Rome, then spread rapidly to the rest of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, then to Austria, southern Germany, and Poland. By the 1730s, it had evolved into an even more flamboyant style, called rocaille or Rococo, which appeared in France and Central Europe until the mid to late 18th century. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires including the Iberian Peninsula it continued, together with new styles, until the first decade of the 19th century.

In the decorative arts, the style employs plentiful and intricate ornamentation. The departure from Renaissance classicism has its own ways in each country. But a general feature is that everywhere the starting point is the ornamental elements introduced by the Renaissance. The classical repertoire is crowded, dense, overlapping, loaded, in order to provoke shock effects. New motifs introduced by Baroque are: the cartouche, trophies and weapons, baskets of fruit or flowers, and others, made in marquetry, stucco, or carved.^[4]

Origin of the word

The English word baroque comes directly from the

An alternative derivation of the word baroque points to the name of the Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612).^[13]

In the 18th century, the term began to be used to describe music, and not in a flattering way. In an anonymous satirical review of the première of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie in October 1733, which was printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic wrote that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.^[14]

In 1762, Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française recorded that the term could figuratively describe something "irregular, bizarre or unequal".^[15]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as a philosopher, wrote in the Encyclopédie in 1768: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."^[9][16]

In 1788, Quatremère de Quincy defined the term in the Encyclopédie Méthodique as "an architectural style that is highly adorned and tormented".^[17]

The French terms style baroque and musique baroque appeared in Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française in 1835.^[18] By the mid-19th century, art critics and historians had adopted the term baroque as a way to ridicule post-Renaissance art. This was the sense of the word as used in 1855 by the leading art historian Jacob Burckhardt, who wrote that baroque artists "despised and abused detail" because they lacked "respect for tradition".^[19]

In 1888, the art historian Heinrich Wölfflin published the first serious academic work on the style, Renaissance und Barock, which described the differences between the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque.^[20]

Architecture: origins and characteristics

The Baroque style of architecture was a result of doctrines adopted by the

The cartouche was another characteristic feature of Baroque decoration. These were large plaques carved of marble or stone, usually oval and with a rounded surface, which carried images or text in gilded letters, and were placed as interior decoration or above the doorways of buildings, delivering messages to those below. They showed a wide variety of invention, and were found in all types of buildings, from cathedrals and palaces to small chapels.^[27]

Baroque architects sometimes used forced perspective to create illusions. For the Palazzo Spada in Rome, Borromini used columns of diminishing size, a narrowing floor and a miniature statue in the garden beyond to create the illusion that a passageway was thirty meters long, when it was actually only seven meters long. A statue at the end of the passage appears to be life-size, though it is only sixty centimeters high. Borromini designed the illusion with the assistance of a mathematician.

Italian Baroque

• 
  St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615^[28]
• 
  Santa Maria della Salute, Venice, by Baldassare Longhena, 1631–1687^[29]
• 
  San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, by Francesco Borromini, 1638–1677
• 
  Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648–1651^[30]
• 
  St. Peter's Square, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1656–1667^[28]
• 
  Santa Maria della Pace, Rome, by Pietro da Cortona, 1656–1667^[31]

The first building in Rome to have a Baroque façade was the Church of the Gesù in 1584; it was plain by later Baroque standards, but marked a break with the traditional Renaissance façades that preceded it. The interior of this church remained very austere until the high Baroque, when it was lavishly ornamented.

In Rome in 1605,

The style spread quickly from Rome to other regions of Italy: It appeared in Venice in the church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631–1687) by Baldassare Longhena, a highly original octagonal form crowned with an enormous cupola. It appeared also in Turin, notably in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1668–1694) by Guarino Guarini. The style also began to be used in palaces; Guarini designed the Palazzo Carignano in Turin, while Longhena designed the Ca' Rezzonico on the Grand Canal, (1657), finished by Giorgio Massari with decorated with paintings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.^[36] A series of massive earthquakes in Sicily required the rebuilding of most of them and several were built in the exuberant late Baroque or Rococo style.

Spanish Baroque

• 
  Palacio de San Telmo, Seville, Andalusia, by Leonardo de Figueroa, 1682–1754
• 
  Palacio de la Merced, Córdoba, Andalusia, 1245–1760
• 
  Royal Palace of Madrid in Madrid, by Jean Bautista Sachetti, 1735–1764^[37]
• 
  Façade of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, by Fernando de Casas Novoa, 1738^[38]
• 
  Palau de la Virreina in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1772 and 1778 by Josep Ausich
• 
  Basílica de la Mercè in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1765 and 1775 by José Mas Dordal
• 
  La Clerecía church in Salamanca, Castile and León, built between 1617 and 1754.
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  Iglesia-convento de Santa Teresa, in Ávila, Castile and León, built in the early 17th century
• 
  Casa consistorial de Cuenca, in Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha, built between 1760 and 1788 by Lorenzo de Santa María and Mateo López
• 
  Iglesia de los Santos Juanes in Valencia, built between 1240 and 1702

The Catholic Church in Spain, and particularly the

Granada had only been conquered from the Moors in the 15th century, and had its own distinct variety of Baroque. The painter, sculptor and architect Alonso Cano designed the Baroque interior of Granada Cathedral between 1652 and his death in 1657. It features dramatic contrasts of the massive white columns and gold decor.

The most ornamental and lavishly decorated architecture of the Spanish Baroque is called Churrigueresque style, named after the brothers Churriguera, who worked primarily in Salamanca and Madrid. Their works include the buildings on the city's main square, the Plaza Mayor of Salamanca (1729).^[40] This highly ornamental Baroque style was influential in many churches and cathedrals built by the Spanish in the Americas.

Other notable Spanish baroque architects of the late Baroque include Pedro de Ribera, a pupil of Churriguera, who designed the Royal Hospice of San Fernando in Madrid, and Narciso Tomé, who designed the celebrated El Transparente altarpiece at Toledo Cathedral (1729–1732) which gives the illusion, in certain light, of floating upwards.^[40]

The architects of the Spanish Baroque had an effect far beyond Spain; their work was highly influential in the churches built in the Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines. The Church built by the

• 
  Poznań Fara, Poznań, Poland, by Bartłomiej Nataniel Wąsowski, Giovanni Catenazzi and Pompeo Ferrari, 1651–1732
• 
  Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, Poland, unknown architect, 1677–1679^[42]
• 
  Plague Column, Vienna, Austria, by Matthias Rauchmiller and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1682 and 1694^[43]
• 
  Church of Saint Nicholas, Prague, Czech Republic, by Christoph Dientzenhofer, 1703–1711^[44]
• 
  Exterior of the Karlskirche, Vienna, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737^[45]
• 
  Interior of the Karlskirche, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737^[45]
• 
  Upper Belvedere, Vienna, by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, 1717–1723^[46]
• 
  Rogalin Palace, Rogalin, Poland, unknown architect, 1768–1774^[47]

From 1680 to 1750, many highly ornate cathedrals, abbeys, and pilgrimage churches were built in Central Europe, in Bavaria, Austria, Bohemia and southwestern Poland. Some were in Rococo style, a distinct, more flamboyant and asymmetric style which emerged from the Baroque, then replaced it in Central Europe in the first half of the 18th century, until it was replaced in turn by classicism.^[48]

The princes of the multitude of states in that region also chose Baroque or Rococo for their palaces and residences, and often used Italian-trained architects to construct them.

One of the best examples of a rococo church is the Basilika Vierzehnheiligen, or Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a pilgrimage church located near the town of Bad Staffelstein near Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany. The Basilica was designed by Balthasar Neumann and was constructed between 1743 and 1772, its plan a series of interlocking circles around a central oval with the altar placed in the exact centre of the church. The interior of this church illustrates the summit of Rococo decoration.^[50] Another notable example of the style is the Pilgrimage Church of Wies (German: Wieskirche). It was designed by the brothers J. B. and Dominikus Zimmermann. It is located in the foothills of the Alps, in the municipality of Steingaden in the Weilheim-Schongau district, Bavaria, Germany. Construction took place between 1745 and 1754, and the interior was decorated with frescoes and with stuccowork in the tradition of the Wessobrunner School. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Another notable example is the St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) in Prague (1704–1755), built by Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer. Decoration covers all of walls of interior of the church. The altar is placed in the nave beneath the central dome, and surrounded by chapels, light comes down from the dome above and from the surrounding chapels. The altar is entirely surrounded by arches, columns, curved balustrades and pilasters of coloured stone, which are richly decorated with statuary, creating a deliberate confusion between the real architecture and the decoration. The architecture is transformed into a theatre of light, colour and movement.^[26]

In Poland, the Italian-inspired

• 
  Château de Maisons, France, by François Mansart, 1630–1651^[54]
• 
  Galerie d'Apollon, Louvre Palace, Paris, by Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, after 1661^[55]
• 
  East front of the Louvre Palace, Paris, by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau, 1665–1680^[56]
• 
  Versailles, France, 1696–1710^[57]
• 
  Porte Saint-Denis, Paris, by François Blondel, 1672^[58]
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  Dôme des Invalides, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1677–1706^[59]
• 
  Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, 1678–1684^[60]
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  Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688^[61]
• 
  The Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, 1680^[62]
• 
  Place Vendôme, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1699–1706^[63]
• 
  Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais, Paris, by Pierre Cailleteau, 1700–1704^[64]

Baroque in France developed quite differently from the ornate and dramatic local versions of Baroque from Italy, Spain and the rest of Europe. It appears severe, more detached and restrained by comparison, preempting

The major royal project of the period was the expansion of Palace of Versailles, begun in 1661 by Le Vau with decoration by the painter Charles Le Brun. The gardens were designed by André Le Nôtre specifically to complement and amplify the architecture. The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), the centerpiece of the château, with paintings by Le Brun, was constructed between 1678 and 1686. Mansart completed the Grand Trianon in 1687. The chapel, designed by de Cotte, was finished in 1710. Following the death of Louis XIV, Louis XV added the more intimate Petit Trianon and the highly ornate theatre. The fountains in the gardens were designed to be seen from the interior, and to add to the dramatic effect. The palace was admired and copied by other monarchs of Europe, particularly Peter the Great of Russia, who visited Versailles early in the reign of Louis XV, and built his own version at Peterhof Palace near Saint Petersburg, between 1705 and 1725.^[68]

Portuguese Baroque

• 
  University Library, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, by Gaspar Ferreira, 1716–1728^[69]
• 
  Palace of Mafra, Mafra, Portugal, by João Frederico Ludovice, 1717–1755^[70]
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  Lisboa, Portugal, with a scene based on a print by Jean Le Pautre, unknown architect or craftsman, 1730–1735^[71]
• 
  Grand Staircase of the Pilgrimage Church of Bom Jesus do Monte, Braga, Portugal, by Carlos Luís Ferreira Amarante and others, c.1784^[72]

Baroque architecture in Portugal lasted about two centuries (the late seventeenth century and eighteenth century). The reigns of John V and Joseph I had increased imports of gold and diamonds, in a period called Royal Absolutism, which allowed the Portuguese Baroque to flourish.

Baroque architecture in Portugal enjoys a special situation and different timeline from the rest of Europe.

It is conditioned by several political, artistic, and economic factors, that originate several phases, and different kinds of outside influences, resulting in a unique blend,^[73] often misunderstood by those looking for Italian art, find instead specific forms and character which give it a uniquely Portuguese variety. Another key factor is the existence of the Jesuitical architecture, also called "plain style" (Estilo Chão or Estilo Plano)^[74] which like the name evokes, is plainer and appears somewhat austere.

The buildings are single-room basilicas, deep main chapel, lateral chapels (with small doors for communication), without interior and exterior decoration, simple portal and windows. It is a practical building, allowing it to be built throughout the empire with minor adjustments, and prepared to be decorated later or when economic resources are available.

In fact, the first Portuguese Baroque does not lack in building because "plain style" is easy to be transformed, by means of decoration (painting, tiling, etc.), turning empty areas into pompous, elaborate baroque scenarios. The same could be applied to the exterior. Subsequently, it is easy to adapt the building to the taste of the time and place, and add on new features and details. Practical and economical.

With more inhabitants and better economic resources, the north, particularly the areas of Porto and Braga,^[75][76][77] witnessed an architectural renewal, visible in the large list of churches, convents and palaces built by the aristocracy.

• 
  Peterhof Gardens, Saint Petersburg, Russia, unknown architect, 1746–1758^[83]
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  Smolny Convent, Saint Petersburg, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1748^[84]
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  Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin, Russia, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1749–1756^[85]

• 
  Church of São Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil, by Aleijadinho, 1765–1788
• 
  Basilica of San Francisco de Asís, Havana, Cuba, unknown architect, 1548–1738^[87]
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  Church of San Francisco Acatepec, San Andrés Cholula, Mexico, unknown architect, 17th–18th centuries
• 
  Quito Metropolitan Cathedral, Quito, Ecuador, by Antonio García and others, 1535-1799
• 
  Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Sucre, Bolivia, 1551-1712
• 
  Santo Domingo Church, Santiago, Chile, unknown architect, 1747–1808^[88]
• 
  Church of Santa Prisca de Taxco, Taxco, Mexico, by Diego Durán and Cayetano Sigüenza, 1751–1758^[89]
• 
  Church of la Recolección, León, Nicaragua, 1786–1788

Façade of the Jesuit Church of Cusco, Peru, by Jean-Baptiste Gilles and Diego Martínez de Oviedo, 1576–1668^[90]

Preserved colonial wall paintings of 1802 depicting Hell,^[91][92][93] by Tadeo Escalante, inside the Church of San Juan Bautista in Huaro, Peru

Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries, the Baroque naturally moved to the

• 
  São Paulo in Macau, China, unknown architect, 1601^[98]
• 
  São Paulo in Diu, India, unknown architect, 1601^[99]
• 
  The Manila Cathedral in a painting of 1792, in Intramuros, Manila, Philippines
• 
  Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, India, 1594-1605

In the Portuguese colonies of India (Goa, Daman and Diu) an architectural style of Baroque forms mixed with Hindu elements flourished, such as the Goa Cathedral and the Basilica of Bom Jesus of Goa, which houses the tomb of St. Francis Xavier. The set of churches and convents of Goa was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986.

In the Philippines, which was a Spanish colony for over three centuries, a large number of Baroque constructions are preserved. Four of these as well as the Baroque and Neoclassical city of Vigan are both UNESCO World Heritage Sites; and although they lack formal classification, The Walled City of Manila along with the city of Tayabas both contain a significant extent of Spanish-Baroque-era architecture.

Echoes in Wallachia and Moldavia

• 
  Golia Monastery Church, Iași, Romania, unknown architect, 1650-1660
• 
  Horezu Monastery, Horezu, Romania, with a Solomonic column, unknown architect, 17th-18th centuries^[100]
• 
  Door and pisanie of the Saints Constantine and Helena Church, Horezu Monastery, unknown architect or sculptor, 1692-1694
• 
  Maximalist railing of the

  Potlogi

  , unknown architect, 1698
• 
  Twisting columns and railings of the Mogoșoaia Palace, Mogoșoaia, unknown architect, early 18th century^[101]
• 
  Cartouche on a damaged stone in the courtyard of Antim Monastery, Bucharest, unknown sculptor, late 17th-early 18th century

As we saw, the Baroque is a Western style, born in Italy. Through the commercial and cultural relationships of Italians with countries of the

As the 18th century passes, with the Phanariot (members of prominent Greek families in Phanar, Istanbul) reigns in Wallachia and Moldavia, Baroque influences come from Istanbul too. They came before too, during the 17th century, but with the Phanariots, more Western Baroque motifs that arrived to the Ottoman Empire have their final destination in present-day Romania. In Moldavia, Baroque elements come from Russia too, where the influence of Italian art was strong.^[102]

Painting

• 
  Resurrection of Christ; by Annibale Carracci; 1593; oil on canvas; 217 x 160 cm; Louvre^[103]
• 
  Triumph of Bacchus and Adriane (part of The Loves of the Gods); by Annibale Carracci; c.1597–1600; fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 m; Palazzo Farnese, Rome^[104]
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  The Calling of St Matthew; by Caravaggio; c.1602–1604; oil on canvas; 3 x 2 m; San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome^[105]
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  Judith Slaying Holofernes; by Artemisia Gentileschi; 1611–1612; oil on canvas; 163 x 126 cm; Uffizi, Florence, Italy^[106]
• 
  The Four Continents; by Peter Paul Rubens; c.1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria
• 
  The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City^[107]
• 
  The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands^[108]
• 
  The Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba; by Claude Lorrain; 1648; oil on canvas; 149.1 × 196.7 cm; National Gallery, London
• 
  Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain^[109]
• 
  The Triumph of Bacchus; by Michaelina Wautier; before 1659; oil on canvas; 270 x 354 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum^[110]
• 
  Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum^[111]

Baroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the Mannerism period after it. In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of the

Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, where Annibale Carracci, Agostino Carracci and Ludovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the Renaissance. Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included intense emotion and religious imagery that appealed more to the heart than to the intellect.^[115]

Another influential painter of the Baroque era was

Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of the Flemish Baroque style. Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation. Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.

One important domain of Baroque painting was Quadratura, or paintings in trompe-l'œil, which literally "fooled the eye". These were usually painted on the stucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.^[48]

In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration; Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who employed this illusionist way of painting. Among his most important commissions were the frescoes he painted for the Palace of the Barberini family (1633–39), to glorify the reign of Pope Urban VIII. Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel.^[116]

François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared during the late Baroque period. He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting. His work was extremely popular with Madame de Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV. His paintings featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.^[117]

Hispanic Americas

• 
  Saint Veronica; by Francesco Mochi; 1629–1639; Carrara marble; height: 5 m; St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
• 
  Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome^[118]
• 
  The King's Fame Riding Pegasus; by Antoine Coysevox; 1698–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m; Louvre^[119]
• 
  Venus Giving Arms to Aeneas; by Jean Cornu; 1704; terracotta and painted wood; height: 108 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
• 
  The Death of Adonis; by Giuseppe Mazzuoli; 1710s; marble; height: 193 cm; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia

The dominant figure in baroque sculpture was

In Spain, the sculptor Francisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious themes, using polychromed wood. Some of the finest baroque sculptural craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include the Rosary Chapel of the Church of Santo Domingo in Oaxaca (Mexico), 1724–1731.

Furniture

• 
  Four-poster bed from the Château d'Effiat; c.1650; natural walnut, chiselled Genoa silk velvet and embroidered silks; 295 cm; Louvre^[122]
• 
  Baroque caryatids of a cabinet; c.1675; ebony, kingwood, marquetry of hard stones, gilt bronze, pewter, glass, tinted mirror and horn; unknown dimensions; Museum of Decorative Art, Strasbourg, France^[123]
• 
  Pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US^[124]
• 
  Cupboard; by

  André Charles Boulle; c.1700; ebony and amaranth veneering, polychrome woods, brass, tin, shell, and horn marquetry on an oak frame, gilt-bronze; 255.5 x 157.5 cm; Louvre^[125]
• 
  Armchair; by Andrea Brustolon; c.1700-1715; wood and upholstery; unknown dimsensions; Ca' Rezzonico, Venice
• 
  Throne; c.1700-1720; gilded wood and upholstery; unknown dimsensions; Ca' Rezzonico
• 
  Commode; by André Charles Boulle; c.1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)^[126]
• 
  German slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; c.1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; Art Institute of Chicago^[127]

The main motifs used are:

New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; the commode, with two to four drawers, replaced the old coffre, or chest. The canapé, or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs. New kinds of armchairs appeared, including the fauteuil en confessionale or "Confessional armchair", which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair. The console table also made its first appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall. Another new type of furniture was the table à gibier, a marble-topped table for holding dishes. Early varieties of the desk appeared; the Mazarin desk had a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column.^[130]

Music

The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art. The first uses of the term 'baroque' for music were criticisms. In an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty of this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.^[131] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768 in the famous Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."^[16]

Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, by Curt Sachs,^[132] and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer.^[131]

The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation which explains the amount of ornaments and improvisation performed by the musicians. New forms were invented, including the concerto and sinfonia. Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created the first Royal Academy of Music, In 1669, the poet Pierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premiered Pomone, the first grand opera in French, with music by Robert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.^[133] Heinrich Schütz in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century.

Several new instruments, including the piano, were introduced during this period. The invention of the piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.^[134][135] Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ("a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud"), abbreviated over time as pianoforte, fortepiano, and later, simply, piano.^[136]

Composers and examples

• Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554/1557–1612) Sonata pian' e forte (1597), In Ecclesiis (from Symphoniae sacrae book 2, 1615)
• Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580–1651) Libro primo di villanelle, 20 (1610)
• Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), L'Orfeo, favola in musica (1610)
• Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), Musikalische Exequien (1629, 1647, 1650)
• L'Egisto (1643), Ercole amante (1662), Scipione affricano (1664)

  

• Johann Jacob Froberger (1616–1667), Complete Music for Harpsichord and Organ, Simone Stella
• Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), Armide (1686)
• Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), Te Deum (1688–1698)
• Mystery Sonatas
  (1681)
• John Blow (1649–1708), Venus and Adonis (1680–1687)
• Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Canon in D (1680)
• 12 concerti grossi, Op. 6
  (1714)
• Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris
  (1723)
• Henry Purcell (1659–1695), Dido and Aeneas (1688)
• Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), L'honestà negli amori (1680), Il Pompeo (1683), Mitridate Eupatore (1707)
• Les barricades mystérieuses
  (1717)
• Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), Didone abbandonata (1724)
• Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), The Four Seasons (1725)
• Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), Il Serpente di Bronzo (1730), Missa Sanctissimae Trinitatis (1736)
• Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Der Tag des Gerichts (1762)
• Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729)
• Dardanus
  (1739)
• Water Music (1717), Messiah
  (1741)
• Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harpsichord
• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata and Fugue in D minor (1703–1707), Brandenburg Concertos (1721), St Matthew Passion (1727)
• Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), Semiramide riconosciuta (1729)
• Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), Stabat Mater (1736)

Dance

The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era. The style of court dance was brought to France by

The Baroque period was a golden age for theatre in France and Spain; playwrights included Corneille, Racine and Molière in France; and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca in Spain.

During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of ballet. The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of the

The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in Spain, following an Italian literary model during the Renaissance.[140] The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric, knightly world.^[141]

Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theatre, with the division occurring in 1630. The first period is represented chiefly by

Lope de Vega introduced through his Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) the new comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, time, and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.^[144] Although Lope has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre or scenography. The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical representation.^[145]

Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain. Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón. Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, The Convicted Suspicions and

Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians, essentially transhumant, began to professionalize. With professionalization came regulation and censorship: as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with exceptions) or persecution by the Church. The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of religious dogma.[150]

The corrales were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations. The itinerant companies (or "of the

• 
  Gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, by André Le Nôtre, 1657–1661^[152]
• 
  Gardens of Versailles, by André Le Nôtre, begun in 1661^[153]
• 
  Gardens of the Het Loo Palace, Netherlands, unknown architect, 1689^[154]
• 
  Garden of the Tessin Palace, Stockholm, Sweden, by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, 1692–1700^[155]
• 
  Garden of the Schwerin Castle, Schwerin, Germany, unknown architect, unknown date

The

Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water. In the later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features, including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as "secret gardens" on the edges of the main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations. By the mid-18th century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of the English landscape garden.^[156]

Besides Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, celebrated baroque gardens still retaining much of their original appearance include the

16th through 19th century European cities witnessed a large change in urban design and planning principals that reshaped the landscapes and built environment. Rome, Paris, and other major cities were transformed to accommodate growing populations through improvements in housing, transportation, and public services. Throughout this time, the Baroque style was in full swing, and the influences of elaborate, dramatic, and artistic architectural styles extended into the urban fabric through what is known as Baroque urban planning. The experience of living and walking in the cities aims to compliment the emotions of the Baroque style. This style of planning often embraced displaying the wealth and strength of the ruling powers, and the important buildings served as the visual and symbolic center of the cities.^[157]

The replanning of the city of Rome under the rule of Pope Sixtus V revived and expanded the city in the 16th century. Many grand piazzas and squares were added as public spaces to contribute to the dramatic effect of the Baroque style. The piazzas featured fountains and other decorative features to embody the emotions of the time. An important factor in Baroque style planning was to connect churches, government structures, and piazzas together in a refined network of axis'. This allowed the important landmarks of the Catholic Church to become the focal points of the city. ^[158]

As another example of Baroque urban planning, Paris was in desperate need for an urban revival in the 19th century. The city underwent a dramatic change within its urban fabric through the help of

More characteristics of Baroque urban planning are embodied in Barcelona. The Eixample district, designed by Ildefons Cerdà, showcases wide avenues in a grid system with a few diagonal boulevards. The intersections are very unique with octagonal blocks, which provide the streets with great visibility and light. ^[160] Many works in this district come from architect Antoni Gaudí, who displays a unique style. Centered in the Eixample district design is the Sagrada Família by Gaudí, which poses great significance to the city.

Posterity

Transition to rococo

• 
  Meudon Observatory, Château de Meudon, Meudon, France, an example of an early Rococo building from the last years of Louis XIV, unknown architect, 1706-1709^[161]
• 
  Chest of drawers; by Charles Cressent; c.1730; various wood types; gilt-bronze mounts and a Brèche d'Aleps marble top; height: 91.1 cm; Waddesdon Manor, Waddesdon, UK
• 
  Amalienburg, Nymphenburg Palace Park, Munich, Germany, by François de Cuvilliés, 1734-1739^[162]
• 
  The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise, Paris, by Germain Boffrand, Charles-Joseph Natoire and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne, 1737-1739
• 
  The Triumph of Venus; by François Boucher; 1740; oil on canvas; 130 × 162 cm; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden
• 
  Vieux-Laque Room,

  Nikolaus Pacassi, 1743-1763^[163]
• 
  Gate with two statues and elaborate wrought-iron grilles, Würzburg, Germany, grilles by Johann Georg Oegg, 1752
• 
  Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, an example of Chinoiserie, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755–1764^[164]
• 
  Coffeepot, decorated with

  foliage; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

  , New York
• 
  The Music Lesson; by the

  Chelsea Porcelain Factory

  ; c.1765; soft-paste porcelain; 39.1 × 31.1 × 22.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Pagod, based on Asian figures of Budai, an example of Chinoiserie; by Johann Joachim Kändler; c.1765; hard paste porcelain; Metropolitan Museum of Art^[165]
• 
  Cartouche from the Second Livre de Cartouches, an example of asymmetry; c.1710-1772; engraving on paper; 23 x 19.8 cm; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

The Rococo is the final stage of the Baroque, and in many ways took the Baroque's fundamental qualities of illusion and drama to their logical extremes. Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of

There are multiple similarities between Rococo and Baroque. Both styles insist on monumental forms, and so use continuous spaces, double columns or pilasters, and luxurious materials (including gilded elements). There also noticeable differences. Rococo designed freed themselves from the adherence to symmetry that had dominated architecture and design since the Renaissance. Many small objects, like ink pots or porcelain figures, but also some ornaments, are often asymmetrical. This goes hand in hand with the fact that most ornamentation consisted of interpretation of foliage and sea shells, not as many Classical ornaments inherited from the Renaissance like in Baroque. Another key difference is the fact that since the Baroque is the main cultural manifestation of the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, it is most often associated with ecclesiastical architecture. In contrast, the Rococo is mainly associated with palaces and domestic architecture. In Paris, the popularity of the Rococo coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in this style. Rococo rooms were typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy.^[166] Colours also match this change, from the earthy tones of Caravaggio's paintings, and the interiors of red marble and gilded mounts of the reign of Louis XIV, to the pastel and relaxed pale blue, Pompadour pink, and white of the Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour's France. Similarly to colours, there was also a transition from serious, dramatic and moralistic subjects in painting and sculpture, to lighthearted and joyful themes.

One last difference between Baroque and Rococo is the interest that 18th century aristocrats had for

Complete abandonment with Neoclassicism

• 
  Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790^[167]
• 
  Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761^[98]
• 
  Facade of the

  Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764^[168]
• 
  Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre^[169]
• 
  This caricature contrasts Rococo 1778 (at right) and Neoclassical 1793 (at left) styles for both men and women, showing the large changes in just 15 years, and overall the contrast between the Baroque and Rococo fashion with a lot of lacework and wigs, and the simplicity and the same time elegance of Neoclassical outfits
• 
  Rue Jacob no. 46, an example of the

  French Neoclassicism

  ), very minimalist compared to Baroque or Rococo facades, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date
• 
  Directoire style armchair of the salon of Madame Récamier, without any kind of gilding; attributed to Jacob Frères; c.1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; Louvre^[170]
• 
  Madame Récamier, in very different to Baroque and Rococo fashion, painted by François Gérard

  , 1802
• 
  Empire style vase, very different from the blue-and-white ceramics of the 17th century; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, US^[171]

In 1750, Madame de Pompadour sent her nephew,

The transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism wasn't very abrupt. Some of the biggest patrons of Rococo art also commissioned early Neoclassical works. Madame de Pompadour, one of the main figures of Rococo, commissioned the Petit Trianon, one of the most important examples of French Neoclassical architecture. Similarly, Louis XV, the king at whose court the Rococo flourished, founded the Panthéon, another iconic Neoclassical monument. Besides this, in France there was the Louis XVI style, which uses shapes and motifs taken from ancient Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquity, but still has the sweet, delicate and fancy vibe of the Rococo. In the UK, Robert Adam's Greco-Roman inspired interior of the Eating Room in the Osterley Park, near London, despite being Neoclassical, is painted mainly in white and pastel green and pink, reminiscent of Rococo. It must be mentioned that Neoclassicism wasn't about copying. Artists didn't try to become frozen in the past, but to use Antiquity and its ideals in a way that was relevant to contemporary society.

Condemnation and academic rediscovery

The pioneer German art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture. By the 19th century, Baroque was a target for ridicule and criticism. The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: "Borrominini in architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected a large number of artists."^[173] In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British critic John Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.^[173]

The Swiss-born art historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Baroque art and architecture became fashionable in the

Revivals and influence through eclecticism

• 
  Cabinet; c.1850-1870; Boulle marquetry; unknown dimensions; Musée départemental de l'Oise, Beauvais, France
• 
  Large console with central projection; by Benjamin Deguil and Benjamin-Paul Ramillon; 1850-1875; gilt wood and marble; 100 x 283 x 77 cm; Napoleon III Apartments, Louvre Palace, Paris^[175]
• 
  The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the Napoleon III Apartments, designed by

  Hector Lefuel and decorated with paintings by Charles Raphaël Maréchal, 1859-1860^[176]
• 
  Jewelry toilet of

  Empress Eugénie; by Jules Fossey; c.1860; unknown materials; unknown dimensions; Château de Compiègne, Compiègne

  , France
• 
  Candelabrum with eleven lights; by Ferdinand Barbedienne; 1861; gilt bronze; height: 83.7 cm, length: 49.4 cm; Napoleon III Apartments^[177]
• 
  Exterior of the

  Beaux Arts architecture, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875^[178]
• 
  Grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, inspired by the

  neo-Renaissance column lower parts, or the Greek Revival lyres at the tops of windows, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875^[178]
• 
  Table; 2nd half of the 19th century; Boulle marquetry; unknown dimensions; in a temporary exhibition called "Dress Code Parfum de Secol XIX" at the Suțu Palace, Bucharest, Romania
• 
  Petit Palais, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, with Ionic columns very similar to those of the reign of Louis XIV, by Charles Giraud, 1900^[179]

Highly criticized, the Baroque will later be a source of inspiration for artists, architects and designers during the 19th century through

This taste and revival of medieval art led to the revival of other periods, including the Baroque and Rococo. Revivalism started with themes first from the Middle Ages, then, towards the end of the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848), from the Renaissance. Baroque and Rococo inspiration was more popular during the reign of Napoleon III (1852-1870), and continued later, after the fall of the Second French Empire.^[182]

Compared to how in England architects and designers saw the

The revivalism of the 19th century led in time to eclecticism (mix of elements of different styles). Because architects often revived Classical styles, most Eclectic buildings and designs have a distinctive look. Besides pure revivals, the Baroque was also one of the main sources of inspiration for eclecticism. The coupled column and the giant order, two elements widely used in Baroque, are often present in this kind of 19th and early 20th century buildings. Eclecticism was not limited only to architecture. Many designs from the Second Empire style (1848-1870) have elements taken from different styles. Little furniture from the period escaped its three most prevalent historicist influences, which are sometimes kept distinct and sometimes combined: the Renaissance, Louis XV (Rococo), and Louis XVI styles. Revivals and inspiration also came sometimes from Baroque, like in the case of remakes and arabesques that imitate Boulle marquetry, and from other styles, like Gothic, Renaissance, or English Regency.^[183]

The

Revivals and influence of the Baroque faded away and disappeared with Art Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to make a new modern style around 1910. It was obscure before WW1, but became very popular during the interwar period, being heavily associated with the 1920s and the 1930s. The movement was a blend of multiple characteristics taken from Modernist currents from the 1900s and the 1910s, like the Vienna Secession, Cubism, Fauvism, Primitivism, Suprematism, Constructivism, Futurism, De Stijl, and Expressionism. Besides Modernism, elements taken from styles popular during the Belle Époque, like Rococo Revival, Neoclassicism, or the neo-Louis XVI style, are also present in Art Deco. The proportions, volumes and structure of Beaux Arts architecture before WW1 is present in early Art Deco buildings of the 1910s and 1920s. Elements taken from Baroque are quite rare, architects and designers preferring the Louis XVI style.

At the end of the interwar period, with the rise in popularity of the International Style, characterized by the complete lack of any ornamentation led to the complete abandonment of influence and revivals of the Baroque. Multiple International Style architects and designers, but also Modernist artists criticized Baroque for its extravagance and what they saw as "excess". Ironically this was just at the same time as the critical appreciation of the original Baroque was reviving strongly.

Postmodern appreciation and reinterpretations

• 
  550 Madison Avenue, New York, with a top broken pediment, reminiscent of those found in Baroque and at highboys, by Philip Johnson, 1981-1984^[185]
• 
  Broken pediment of San Marcello al Corso, Rome, by Carlo Fontana, 1682-1683^[186]
• 
  Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast, by Pierre Fakhoury, 1985-1990
• 
  St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615^[28]
• 
  Dolphin Hotel, Orlando, Florida, US, with urn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of buildings and furniture from the reign of Louis XIV, by Michael Graves, 1989^[187]
• 
  Urns that decorate the roof railing of the Marble Court of the

  Versailles, France, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, c. 1660-1715^[188]
• 
  Hotel Zaandam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, inspired by Dutch 16th and 17th century canal houses, by Wam Architecten, 2010^[189]
• 
  Herengracht no. 120, Amsterdam, unknown architect, c.1625^[190]

Appreciation for the Baroque reappeared with the rise of Postmodernism, a movement that questioned Modernism (the status quo after WW2), and which promoted the inclusion of elements of historic styles in new designs, and appreciation for the pre-Modernist past.

See also

Notes

Sources

• Amadei-Pulice, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y el barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. Purdue University monographs in Romance languages (in Italian). Vol. 31. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  ISBN 978-9-02-721747-9
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• Bailey, Gauvin Alexander (2012). Baroque & Rococo. Phaidon.
  ISBN 978-0-7148-5742-8
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• Bély, Lucien (2005). Louis XIV – Le Plus Grand Roi du Monde (in French). Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot.
  ISBN 978-2-87-747772-7
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• Boucher, Bruce (1998). Italian Baroque Sculpture. World of Art. Thames & Hudson.
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• Cabanne, Pierre (1988). L'Art Classique et le Baroque (in French). Paris: Larousse.
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• Causa, Raffaello, L'Art au XVIII siècle du rococo à Goya (1963), (in French) Hachcette, Paris
  ISBN 2-86535-036-3
• Celac, Mariana; Carabela, Octavian; Marcu-Lapadat, Marius (2017). Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide. Order of Architects of Romania.
  ISBN 978-973-0-23884-6
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• Ducher, Robert (1988). Caractéristique des Styles. Paris: Flammarion.
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• Ducher, Robert (2014). La Caractéristique des Styles.
• Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. 2005.
  ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7
  (hardcover)
• Fortenberry, Diane (2017). The Art Museum (Revised ed.). London: Phaidon Press.
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• González Mas, Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Editorial, UPR.
• Hodge, Susie (2017). The Short Story of Art. Laurence King Publishing.
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• Hodge, Susie (2019). The Short Story of Architecture. Laurence King Publishing.
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• Hopkins, Owen (2014). Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King.
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• Isacoff, Stuart (2012). A Natural History of the Piano: The Instrument, the Music, the Musicians – From Mozart to Modern Jazz and Everything in Between. Knopf Doubleday Publishing.
• Jones, Denna, ed. (2014). Architecture : the whole story. London: Thames and Hudson.
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• ISBN 9781561592630
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• Prater, Andreas, and Bauer, Hermann, La Peinture du baroque (1997), (in French), Taschen, Paris
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• Sund, July (2019). Exotic: A Fetish for the Foreign. Phaidon.
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• Tazartes, Maurizia, Fontaines de Rome, (2004), (in French) Citadelles, Paris
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Further reading

• Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: H. N. Abrams.
  ISBN 978-0-8109-8027-3
• ISBN 978-0-7148-5742-8
• Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo. Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger. (Originally published in French, as Classique, baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English edition reprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: Praeger, 1974)
• Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage.
• Bailey, Gauvin; Lanthier, Lillian, "Baroque" (2003), Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, Web. Retrieved 30 March 2021. (subscription required)
• Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011. Rethinking the Baroque. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
  ISBN 978-0-7546-6685-1
  .
• Hofer, Philip. 1951.Baroque Book Illustration: A Short Survey.Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
• Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, The Aesthetics of Haemotaphonomy: Stylistic Parallels between a Science and Literature and the Visual Arts.
  ISBN 978-84-9948-991-9
  .
• Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Landmarks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn; New York: McGraw-Hill.
• ISBN 978-0-8264-6648-8
  .
• ISBN 0-06-430077-3
  (pbk.)
• Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961]. Baroque Music. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
  OCLC 318382784
  .
• Riegl, Alois (2010). Hopkins, Andrew (ed.). The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome (Texts and Documents). Getty Research Institute.
  ISBN 978-1-6060-6041-4
  .
• ISBN 0-00-217349-2
  .
• ISBN 978-2-7056-8448-8
  .
• Wakefield, Steve. 2004. Carpentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's Gaze. Colección Támesis. Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tamesis.
  ISBN 1-85566-107-1
  .
• Massimo Colella, Separatezza e conversazione. Sondaggi intertestuali attorno a Ciro di Pers, in «Xenia. Trimestrale di Letteratura e Cultura» (Genova), IV, 1, 2019, pp. 11-37.
• Massimo Colella, Il Barocco sabaudo tra mecenatismo e retorica. Maria Giovanna Battista di Savoia Nemours e l’Accademia Reale Letteraria di Torino, con Prefazione di Maria Luisa Doglio, Fondazione 1563 per l’Arte e la Cultura della Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino (“Alti Studi sull’Età e la Cultura del Barocco”, IV-1), 2019.
• Massimo Colella, Seicento satirico: "Il Viaggio" di Antonio Abati (con edizione critica in appendice), in «La parola del testo», XXVI, 1-2, 2022, pp. 77-100.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baroque art.

• The baroque and rococo culture
• Webmuseum Paris
• barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien (archived 2 September 2018)
• Baroque in the "History of Art" Archived 30 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
• The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence (archived 24 June 2007)
• Melvyn Bragg's BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time: The Baroque
• "Baroque Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.