Bartolomé de las Casas
O.R.S.A. | |
---|---|
Personal details | |
Born | Bartolomé de las Casas 11 November 1484 |
Died | 18 July 1566 (aged 81) Madrid, Spain |
Buried | Basilica of Our Lady of Atocha, Madrid, Spain |
Nationality | Spanish |
Denomination | Catholic Church |
Occupation | Hacienda owner, priest, missionary, bishop, writer |
Signature |
Bartolomé de las Casas, OP (US: /lɑːs ˈkɑːsəs/ lahss KAH-səss; Spanish: [baɾtoloˈme ðe las ˈkasas] ⓘ; 11 November 1484[1] – 18 July 1566) was a Spanish clergyman, writer, and activist best known for his work as a historian and social reformer. He arrived in Hispaniola as a layman, then became a Dominican friar. He was appointed as the first resident Bishop of Chiapas, and the first officially appointed "Protector of the Indians". His extensive writings, the most famous being A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and Historia de Las Indias, chronicle the first decades of colonization of the West Indies. He described the atrocities committed by the colonizers against the indigenous peoples.[2]
Arriving as one of the first Spanish settlers in the Americas, Las Casas initially participated in, but eventually felt compelled to oppose, the abuses committed by European colonists against the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[3] As a result, in 1515 he gave up his Native American slaves and encomienda, and he then advocated, before Charles V, on behalf of rights for the natives. In his early writings, he advocated the use of African slaves instead of Natives in the West Indian colonies but did so without knowing that the Portuguese were carrying out "brutal and unjust wars in the name of spreading the faith".[4] Later in life, he retracted this position, as he regarded both forms of slavery as equally wrong.[5] In 1522, he tried to launch a new kind of peaceful colonialism on the coast of Venezuela, but this venture failed. Las Casas entered the Dominican Order and became a friar, leaving public life for a decade. He traveled to Central America, acting as a missionary among the Maya of Guatemala and participating in debates among colonial churchmen about how best to bring the natives to the Christian faith.
Travelling back to Spain to recruit more missionaries, he continued lobbying for the abolition of the encomienda, gaining an important victory by the passage of the New Laws in 1542. He was appointed Bishop of Chiapas, but served only for a short time before he was forced to return to Spain because of resistance to the New Laws by the encomenderos, and conflicts with Spanish settlers because of his pro-Indian policies and activist religious stance. He served in the Spanish court for the remainder of his life; there he held great influence over Indies-related issues. In 1550, he participated in the Valladolid debate, in which Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that the Indians were less than human, and required Spanish masters to become civilized. Las Casas maintained that they were fully human, and that forcefully subjugating them was unjustifiable.
Bartolomé de las Casas spent 50 years of his life actively fighting slavery and the colonial abuse of indigenous peoples, especially by trying to convince the Spanish court to adopt a more humane policy of colonization. Unlike some other priests who sought to destroy the indigenous peoples' native books and writings, he strictly opposed this action.[6] Although he did not completely succeed in changing Spanish views on colonization, his efforts did result in improvement of the legal status of the natives, and in an increased colonial focus on the ethics of colonialism.
Life and time
Background and arrival in the New World
Bartolomé de las Casas was born in
Las Casas' first encounter with Indigenous peoples happened before he even sailed to the Americas. In his Historia general de las Indias, he wrote of Christopher Columbus' return to Seville, in 1493.[13] Las Casas recorded having seen "seven Indians" in the entourage of Christopher Columbus, being exhibited in the vicinity of the Iglesia de San Nicolás de Bari, along with "beautiful green parrots, vibrant in color" and Indigenous artifacts.[14] Pedro de Las Casas, Bartolomé's merchant father, left in Christopher Columbus' second expedition. Upon his return, in 1499, Pedro de Las Casas brought to his son "a young Amerinidian."[15]
Three years later, in 1502, Las Casas immigrated with his father to the island of
In September 1510, a group of
Conquest of Cuba and change of heart
In 1513, as a chaplain, Las Casas participated in Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar's and Pánfilo de Narváez' conquest of Cuba. He participated in campaigns at Bayamo and Camagüey and in the massacre of Hatuey.[23] He witnessed many atrocities committed by Spaniards against the native Ciboney and Guanahatabey peoples. He later wrote: "I saw here cruelty on a scale no living being has ever seen or expects to see."[24] Las Casas and his friend Pedro de la Rentería were awarded a joint encomienda which was rich in gold and slaves, located on the Arimao River close to Cienfuegos. During the next few years, he divided his time between being a colonist and his duties as an ordained priest.
In 1514, Las Casas was studying a passage in the book
Las Casas and King Ferdinand
Las Casas arrived in Spain with the plan of convincing the King to end the encomienda system. This was easier thought than done, as most of the people who were in positions of power were themselves either encomenderos or otherwise profiting from the influx of wealth from the Indies.[29] In the winter of 1515, King Ferdinand lay ill in Plasencia, but Las Casas was able to get a letter of introduction to the king from the Archbishop of Seville, Diego de Deza. On Christmas Eve of 1515, Las Casas met the monarch and discussed the situation in the Indies with him; the king agreed to hear him out in more detail at a later date. While waiting, Las Casas produced a report that he presented to the Bishop of Burgos, Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, and secretary Lope Conchillos, who were functionaries in complete charge of the royal policies regarding the Indies; both were encomenderos. They were not impressed by his account, and Las Casas had to find a different avenue of change. He put his faith in his coming audience with the king, but it never came, for King Ferdinand died on 25 January 1516.[30]
The regency of
Protector of the Indians
Three
Las Casas and Emperor Charles V: The peasant colonization scheme
When he arrived in Spain, his former protector, regent, and Cardinal Ximenez Cisneros, was ill and had become tired of Las Casas's tenacity. Las Casas resolved to meet instead with the young king Charles I. Ximenez died on 8 November, and the young King arrived in Valladolid on 25 November 1517. Las Casas managed to secure the support of the king's Flemish courtiers, including the powerful Chancellor Jean de la Sauvage. Las Casas's influence turned the favor of the court against Secretary Conchillos and Bishop Fonseca. Sauvage spoke highly of Las Casas to the king, who appointed Las Casas and Sauvage to write a new plan for reforming the governmental system of the Indies.[40]
Las Casas suggested a plan where the encomienda would be abolished and Indians would be congregated into self-governing townships to become tribute-paying vassals of the king. He still suggested that the loss of Indian labor for the colonists could be replaced by allowing
The Cumaná venture
Following a suggestion by his friend and mentor
Arriving in Puerto Rico, in January 1521, he received the terrible news that the Dominican convent at Chiribichi had been sacked by Indians, and that the Spaniards of the islands had launched a punitive expedition, led by Gonzalo de Ocampo, into the very heart of the territory that Las Casas wanted to colonize peacefully. The Indians had been provoked to attack the settlement of the monks because of the repeated slave raids by Spaniards operating from Cubagua. As Ocampo's ships began returning with slaves from the land Las Casas had been granted, he went to Hispaniola to complain to the Audiencia. After several months of negotiations Las Casas set sail alone; the peasants he had brought had deserted, and he arrived in his colony already ravaged by Spaniards.[44]
Las Casas worked there in adverse conditions for the following months, being constantly harassed by the Spanish
Las Casas as a Dominican friar
Devastated, Las Casas reacted by entering the Dominican monastery of Santa Cruz in
Also in 1536, before venturing into Tuzulutlan, Las Casas went to
Las Casas returned to Guatemala in 1537 wanting to employ his new method of conversion based on two principles: 1) to preach the Gospel to all men and treat them as equals, and 2) to assert that conversion must be voluntary and based on knowledge and understanding of the faith. It was important for Las Casas that this method be tested without meddling from secular colonists, so he chose a territory in the heart of Guatemala where there were no previous colonies and where the natives were considered fierce and war-like. Because the land had not been possible to conquer by military means, the governor of Guatemala,
The New Laws
In Spain, Las Casas started securing official support for the Guatemalan mission, and he managed to get a royal decree forbidding secular intrusion into the Verapaces for the following five years. He also informed the Theologians of Salamanca, led by Francisco de Vitoria, of the mass baptism practiced by the Franciscans, resulting in a dictum condemning the practice as sacrilegious.[55]
But apart from the clerical business, Las Casas had also traveled to Spain for his own purpose: to continue the struggle against the colonists' mistreatment of the Indians.[56] The encomienda had, in fact, legally been abolished in 1523, but it had been reinstituted in 1526, and in 1530 a general ordinance against slavery was reversed by the Crown. For this reason it was a pressing matter for Bartolomé de las Casas to plead once again for the Indians with Charles V who was by now Holy Roman Emperor and no longer a boy. He wrote a letter asking for permission to stay in Spain a little longer to argue for the emperor that conversion and colonization were best achieved by peaceful means.[57]
When the hearings started in 1542, Las Casas presented a narrative of atrocities against the natives of the Indies that would later be published in 1552 as A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Before a council consisting of Cardinal García de Loaysa, the Count of Osorno, Bishop Fuenleal, and several members of the Council of the Indies, Las Casas argued that the only solution to the problem was to remove all Indians from the care of secular Spaniards, by abolishing the encomienda system and putting them instead directly under the Crown as royal tribute-paying subjects.[58] On 20 November 1542, the emperor signed the New Laws abolishing the encomiendas and removing certain officials from the Council of the Indies.[59] The New Laws made it illegal to use Indians as carriers, except where no other transport was available, it prohibited all taking of Indians as slaves, and it instated a gradual abolition of the encomienda system, with each encomienda reverting to the Crown at the death of its holders. It also exempted the few surviving Indians of Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica from tribute and all requirements of personal service. However, the reforms were so unpopular in the New World that riots broke out and threats were made against Las Casas's life. The Viceroy of New Spain, himself an encomendero, decided not to implement the laws in his domain, and instead sent a party to Spain to argue against the laws on behalf of the encomenderos.[60] Las Casas himself was also not satisfied with the laws, as they were not drastic enough and the encomienda system was going to function for many years still under the gradual abolition plan. He drafted a suggestion for an amendment arguing that the laws against slavery were formulated in such a way that it presupposed that violent conquest would still be carried out, and he encouraged once again beginning a phase of peaceful colonization by peasants instead of soldiers.[61]
Bishop of Chiapas
Before Las Casas returned to Spain, he was also appointed as Bishop of
The New Laws were finally repealed on 20 October 1545, and riots broke out against Las Casas, with shots being fired against him by angry colonists.
The Valladolid debate
Las Casas returned to Spain, leaving behind many conflicts and unresolved issues. Arriving in Spain he was met by a barrage of accusations, many of them based on his Confesionario and its 12 rules, which many of his opponents found to be in essence a denial of the legitimacy of Spanish rule of its colonies, and hence a form of treason. The Crown had for example received a fifth of the large number of slaves taken in the recent Mixtón War, and so could not be held clean of guilt under Las Casas's strict rules. In 1548, the Crown decreed that all copies of Las Casas's Confesionario be burnt, and his Franciscan adversary, Motolinia, obliged and sent back a report to Spain. Las Casas defended himself by writing two treatises on the "Just Title" – arguing that the only legality with which the Spaniards could claim titles over realms in the New World was through peaceful proselytizing. All warfare was illegal and unjust and only through the papal mandate of peacefully bringing Christianity to heathen peoples could "Just Titles" be acquired.[69]
As a part of Las Casas's defense by offense, he had to argue against Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. Sepúlveda was a doctor of theology and law who, in his book Democrates Alter, sive de justis causis apud Indos (Another Democrates, or A New Democrates, or on the Just Causes of War against the Indians) had argued that some native peoples were incapable of ruling themselves and should be pacified forcefully. The book was deemed unsound for publication by the theologians of Salamanca and Alcalá for containing unsound doctrine, but the pro-encomendero faction seized on Sepúlveda as their intellectual champion.[70]
To settle the issues, a formal debate was organized, the famous
The judge, Fray Domingo de Soto, summarised the arguments. Sepúlveda addressed Las Casas's arguments with twelve refutations, which were again countered by Las Casas. The judges then deliberated on the arguments presented for several months before coming to a verdict.[73] The verdict was inconclusive, and both debaters claimed that they had won.[74]
Sepúlveda's arguments contributed to the policy of "war by fire and blood" that the Third Mexican Provincial Council implemented in 1585 during the Chichimeca War.[75] According to Lewis Hanke, while Sepúlveda became the hero of the conquistadors, his success was short-lived, and his works were never published in Spain again during his lifetime.[76]
Las Casas's ideas had a more lasting impact on the decisions of the king, Philip II, as well as on history and human rights.[77] Las Casas's criticism of the encomienda system contributed to its replacement with reducciones.[78] His testimonies on the peaceful nature of the native Americans also encouraged nonviolent policies concerning the religious conversions of the Indians in New Spain and Peru. It also helped convince more missionaries to come to the Americas to study the indigenous people, such as Bernardino de Sahagún, who learned the native languages to discover more about their cultures and civilizations.[79]
The impact of Las Casas's doctrine was also limited. In 1550, the king had ordered that the conquest should cease, because the Valladolid debate was to decide whether the war was just or not. The government's orders were hardly respected; conquistadors such as Pedro de Valdivia went on to wage war in Chile during the first half of the 1550s. Expanding the Spanish territory in the New World was allowed again in May 1556, and a decade later, Spain started its conquest of the Philippines.[77]
Later years and death
Having resigned the Bishopric of Chiapas, Las Casas spent the rest of his life working closely with the imperial court in matters relating to the Indies. In 1551 he rented a cell at the
In 1552, Las Casas published
One matter in which he invested much effort was the political situation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In Peru, power struggles between conquistadors and the viceroy became an open civil war in which the conquistadors led by Gonzalo Pizarro rebelled against the New Laws and defeated and executed the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela in 1546. The emperor sent Pedro de la Gasca, a friend of Las Casas, to reinstate the rule of law, and he in turn defeated Pizarro. To restabilize the political situation the encomenderos started pushing not only for the repeal of the New Laws, but for turning the encomiendas into perpetual patrimony of the encomenderos – the worst possible outcome from Las Casas's point of view. The encomenderos offered to buy the rights to the encomiendas from the Crown, and Charles V was inclined to accept since his wars had left him in deep economic troubles. Las Casas worked hard to convince the emperor that it would be a bad economic decision, that it would return the viceroyalty to the brink of open rebellion, and could result in the Crown losing the colony entirely. The emperor, probably because of the doubts caused by Las Casas's arguments, never took a final decision on the issue of the encomiendas.[83]
In 1561, he finished his Historia de las Indias and signed it over to the College of San Gregorio, stipulating that it could not be published until after forty years. In fact it was not published for 314 years, until 1875. He also had to repeatedly defend himself against accusations of treason: someone, possibly Sepúlveda, denounced him to the Spanish Inquisition, but nothing came from the case.[84] Las Casas also appeared as a witness in the case of the Inquisition for his friend Archbishop Bartolomé Carranza de Miranda, who had been falsely accused of heresy.[85][86][87] In 1565, he wrote his last will, signing over his immense library to the college. Bartolomé de Las Casas died on 18 July 1566, in Madrid.[88]
Works
Memorial de Remedios para las Indias
The text, written 1516, starts by describing its purpose: to present "The remedies that seem necessary in order that the evil and harm that exists in the Indies cease, and that God and our Lord the Prince may draw greater benefits than hitherto, and that the republic may be better preserved and consoled."[89]
Las Casas's first proposed remedy was a complete moratorium on the use of Indian labor in the Indies until such time as better regulations of it were set in place. This was meant simply to halt the decimation of the Indian population and to give the surviving Indians time to reconstitute themselves. Las Casas feared that at the rate the exploitation was proceeding it would be too late to hinder their annihilation unless action were taken rapidly. The second was a change in the labor policy so that instead of a colonist owning the labor of specific Indians, he would have a right to man-hours, to be carried out by no specific persons. This required the establishment of self-governing Indian communities on the land of colonists – who would themselves organize to provide the labor for their patron. The colonist would only have rights to a certain portion of the total labor, so that a part of the Indians were always resting and taking care of the sick. He proposed 12 other remedies, all having the specific aim of improving the situation for the Indians and limiting the powers that colonists were able to exercise over them.[90]
The second part of the Memorial described suggestions for the social and political organization of Indian communities relative to colonial ones. Las Casas advocated the dismantlement of the city of Asunción and the subsequent gathering of Indians into communities of about 1,000 Indians to be situated as satellites of Spanish towns or mining areas. Here, Las Casas argued, Indians could be better governed, better taught and indoctrinated in the Christian faith, and would be easier to protect from abuse than if they were in scattered settlements. Each town would have a royal hospital built with four wings in the shape of a cross, where up to 200 sick Indians could be cared for at a time. He described in detail social arrangements, distribution of work, how provisions would be divided and even how table manners were to be introduced. Regarding expenses, he argued that "this should not seem expensive or difficult, because after all, everything comes from them [the Indians] and they work for it and it is theirs."[91] He even drew up a budget of each pueblo's expenses to cover wages for administrators, clerics, Bachelors of Latin, doctors, surgeons, pharmacists, advocates, ranchers, miners, muleteers, hospitalers, pig herders, fishermen, etc.
A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies
A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies[c] (Spanish: Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias) is an account written in 1542 (published in Seville in 1552) about the mistreatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in colonial times and sent to then-Prince Philip II of Spain. 1 of the stated purposes for writing the account was Las Casas's fear of Spain coming under
The book became an important element in the creation and propagation of the so-called
The images described by Las Casas were later depicted by
Apologetic History of the Indies
The Apologetic Summary History of the People of These Indies (Spanish: Apologética historia summaria de las gentes destas Indias) was first written as the 68th chapter of the General History of the Indies, but Las Casas changed it into a volume of its own, recognizing that the material was not historical. The material contained in the Apologetic History is primarily ethnographic accounts of the indigenous cultures of the Indies – the Taíno, the Ciboney, and the Guanahatabey, but it also contains descriptions of many of the other indigenous cultures that Las Casas learned about through his travels and readings. The history is apologetic because it is written as a defense of the cultural level of the Indians, arguing throughout that indigenous peoples of the Americas were just as civilized as the Roman, Greek and Egyptian civilizations – and more civilized than some European civilizations. It was in essence a comparative ethnography comparing practices and customs of European and American cultures and evaluating them according to whether they were good or bad, seen from a Christian viewpoint.[citation needed]
He wrote: "I have declared and demonstrated openly and concluded, from chapter 22 to the end of this whole book, that all people of these our Indies are human, so far as is possible by the natural and human way and without the light of faith – had their republics, places, towns, and cities most abundant and well provided for, and did not lack anything to live politically and socially, and attain and enjoy civil happiness.... And they equaled many nations of this world that are renowned and considered civilized, and they surpassed many others, and to none were they inferior. Among those they equaled were the Greeks and the Romans, and they surpassed them by many good and better customs. They surpassed also the English and the French and some of the people of our own Spain; and they were incomparably superior to countless others, in having good customs and lacking many evil ones."[95] This work in which Las Casas combined his own ethnographic observations with those of other writers, and compared customs and cultures between different peoples, has been characterized as an early beginning of the discipline of anthropology.[96]
History of the Indies
The History of the Indies is a three-volume work begun in 1527 while Las Casas was in the Convent of Puerto de Plata. It found its final form in 1561, when he was working in the Colegio de San Gregorio. Originally planned as a six-volume work, each volume describes a decade of the history of the Indies from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 to 1520, and most of it is an eye-witness account.[97][98] It was in the History of the Indies that Las Casas finally regretted his advocacy for African slavery, and included a sincere apology, writing, "I soon repented and judged myself guilty of ignorance. I came to realize that black slavery was as unjust as Indian slavery... and I was not sure that my ignorance and good faith would secure me in the eyes of God." (Vol II, p. 257)[99]
"History of the Indies" has never been fully translated into English. The only translations into English are the 1971 partial translation by Andrée M. Collard, and partial translations by Cynthia L. Chamberlin, Nigel Griffin, Michael Hammer and Blair Sullivan in UCLA's Repertorium Columbianum (Volumes VI, VII and XI).
Archiving Christopher Columbus' Journal
De Las Casas copied Columbus' diary from his 1492 voyage to modern-day Bahamas. His copy is notable because Columbus' diary itself was lost.[100]
De thesauris in Peru
Legacy
Las Casas's legacy has been highly controversial. In the years following his death, his ideas became taboo in the Spanish realm, and he was seen as a nearly heretical extremist. The accounts written by his enemies
Opposition to Las Casas reached its climax in historiography with Spanish right-wing, nationalist historians in the late 19th and early 20th centuries constructing a pro-Spanish
Criticisms
Las Casas has also often been accused of exaggerating the atrocities he described in the Indies, some scholars holding that the initial population figures given by him were too high, which would make the population decline look worse than it actually was, and that epidemics of European disease were the prime cause of the population decline, not violence and exploitation. Demographic studies such as those of colonial Mexico by Sherburne F. Cook in the mid-20th century suggested that the decline in the first years of the conquest was indeed drastic, ranging between 80 and 90%, due to many different causes but all ultimately traceable to the arrival of the Europeans.[107] The overwhelming cause was disease introduced by the Europeans. Historians have also noted that exaggeration and inflation of numbers was the norm in writing in 16th-century accounts, and both contemporary detractors and supporters of Las Casas were guilty of similar exaggerations.[108][109]
The Dominican friars
One persistent point of criticism has been Las Casas's repeated suggestions of replacing Indian with African slave labor. Even though he regretted that position later in his life and included an apology in his History of the Indies,[110] some later criticism held him responsible for the institution of the transatlantic slave trade. One detractor, the abolitionist David Walker, called Las Casas a "wretch... stimulated by sordid avarice only," holding him responsible for the enslavement of thousands of Africans.[111] Other historians, such as John Fiske writing in 1900, denied that Las Casas's suggestions affected the development of the slave trade. Benjamin Keen likewise did not consider Las Casas to have had any substantial impact on the slave trade, which was well in place before he began writing.[112] That view is contradicted by Sylvia Wynter, who argued that Las Casas's 1516 Memorial was the direct cause of Charles V granting permission in 1518 to transport the first 4,000 African slaves to Jamaica.[113]
A growing corpus of scholarship has sought to deconstruct and reassess the role of Las Casas in Spanish colonialism. Daniel Castro, in his Another Face of Empire (2007), takes on such a task. He argues that he was more of a politician than a humanitarian and that his liberation policies were always combined with schemes to make colonial extraction of resources from the natives more efficient. He also argues that Las Casas failed to realize that by seeking to replace indigenous spirituality with Christianity, he was undertaking a religious colonialism that was more intrusive than the physical one.[114] The responses to his work are varied. Some claim that Castro's portrayal of Las Casas had an air of anachronism.[115][116] Others have agreed with Castro's deconstruction of Las Casas as a nuanced and contradictory historical figure.[117][118][119]
Cultural legacy
In 1848, Ciudad de San Cristóbal, then the capital of the Mexican state of
He was among the first to develop a view of unity among humankind in the New World, stating that "All people of the world are humans," and that they had a natural right to
Residencial Las Casas in Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico is named after Las Casas.
He is also featured in the Guatemalan quetzal one cent (Q0.01) coins.[127]
The small town of Lascassas, Tennessee, in the United States has also been named after him.[128]
See also
Notes
Footnotes
- ^ "If one sacrifices from what has been wrongfully obtained, the offering is blemished; the gifts of the lawless are not acceptable. ... Like one who kills a son before his father's eyes is the man who offers sacrifice from the property of the poor. The bread of the needy is the life of the poor; whoever deprives them of it is a man of blood." quoted from Brading (1997:119–120).
- ^ Las Casas's retraction of his views on African slavery is expressed particularly in chapters 102 and 129, Book III of his Historia.
- ^ Also translated and published in English as A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies, among several other variants.
Citations
- ^ Parish & Weidman (1976)
- ISBN 978-1-583229-46-0.
- ^ Anthony, Dani. "July 2015: Bartolomé de las Casas and 500 Years of Racial Injustice | Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective". origins.osu.edu. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ Lantigua, David. "7 – Faith, Liberty, and the Defense of the Poor: Bishop Las Casas in the History of Human Right", Hertzke, Allen D., and Timothy Samuel Shah, eds. Christianity and Freedom: Historical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, 2016, 190.
- ISSN 1478-0542.
On advocating the importation of a slaves back in 1516, Las Casas wrote 'the cleric [he often wrote in the third person], many years later, regretted the advice he gave the king on this matter – he judged himself culpable through inadvertence – when he saw proven that the enslavement of blacks was every bit as unjust as that of the Indians...
- ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 136.
- ^ Parish & Weidman (1976:385)
- ^ Parish & Weidman (1976, passim)
- ^ e.g. Saunders (2005:162)
- ^ a b Wagner & Parish (1967:1–3)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:67)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:4)
- ISBN 978-0-8173-9285-7.
- ^ de las Casas (2020:34–35)
- JSTOR 26225794.
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:72)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:5)
- ^ Orique (2017:13)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:11)
- ^ Witness: Writing of Bartolome de Las Casas. Edited and translated by George Sanderlin (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1993), 66–67
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:8–9)
- ^ Wynter (1984a:29–30)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:73)
- ^ Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolome de las Casas. Translated and edited by Sullivan (1995:146)
- ^ Ecclesiasticus, Encyclopædia Britannica online
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:11–13)
- ^ Baptiste (1990:69)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:13–15)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:15)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:15–17)
- ^ Baptiste (1990:7–10)
- ^ Wynter (1984a), Wynter (1984b)
- ^ Blackburn (1997:136)
- ^ Friede (1971:165–166)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:23)
- ^ Wynter (1984a)
- ^ "Figueroa, fray Luis de (¿–1523). » MCNBiografias.com". www.mcnbiografias.com.
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:25–30)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:33)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:35–38)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:38–45)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:46–49)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:60–62)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:63–66)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:69)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:82)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:70–72)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:74–78)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:79–84)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:85)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:98–100)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:89)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:86–93)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:94–95)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:103)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:105–106)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:106–107)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:109–113)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:96)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:101)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:16–17)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:99)
- ISBN 978-1107001213.
- ^ a b Cheney, David M. "Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas (Casaus), O.P." Catholic-Hierarchy.org. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ a b c Giménez Fernández (1971:103)
- ^ Brading (1997:133)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:104–105)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:106)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:170–174)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:174–176)
- ^ Losada (1971:285–300)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:178–179)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:1977)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:181–182)
- ^ Poole, 1965, p. 115
- ^ Hanke, 1949, p. 129
- ^ a b Minahane, 2014
- ^ Minahane 2014
- ^ Hernandez, 2015, p. 9
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:183–184)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:191–192)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:98–100, 243–244)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967, ch. XVII)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:186–188)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:222–224)
- ^ Giménez Fernández (1971:113)
- ISBN 978-0872207943.
- ISBN 978-8430617340. Retrieved July 16, 2018.
- ^ Las Casas in Baptiste (1990:14)
- ^ Baptiste (1990)
- ^ Baptiste (1990:45)
- ^ de las Casas, Bartolomé (2007). A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Project Gutenberg. p. 23.
- ^ Keen (1969:712)
- ISBN 978-0-14-044562-6.
- ^ Las Casas, Historia Apologetica, cited in Wagner & Parish (1967:203–204)
- ^ Hanke (1951:88–89)
- ^ Historia de las Indias, 1875–76 ed., Madrid: Ginesta vol. 1, vol.2, vol.3, vol.4 vol.5
- ^ Las Casas, Bartolomé (1875). Sancho Rayón, José León (ed.). Historia de Las Indias. Vol. 1. Madrid: M. Ginesta.
- ^ Pierce (1992)
- ^ Lepore, Jill. These Truths: A History of the United States.
- ^ Keen (1971:46–48)
- ^ Keen (1971:50–52)
- ^ a b Comas (1971, passim)
- ^ Comas (1971:520–521)
- ^ Comas (1971:524–525)
- ^ Comas (1971:515)
- ^ Keen (1971:44–47)
- ^ Comas (1971:502–504)
- ^ Wagner & Parish (1967:245)
- ^ Comas (1971)
- ^ "David Walker, 1785–1830. Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles". Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, & Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America. docsouth.unc.edu. Boston, Massachusetts. 28 September 1829.
- ^ Keen (1971:39)
- ^ Wynter (1984a:25–26)
- ^ Castro (2007)
- ^ Boruchoff (2008)
- ^ Rubiés (2007)
- S2CID 144324584.
- JSTOR 41220110.
- S2CID 162744994.
- ^ Las Casas Institute Archived 2013-07-09 at the Wayback Machine at Blackfriars Hall website
- ^ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^
McBrien, Richard P. (2001). Lives of the Saints (1st ed.). HarperSanFrancisco. p. 289. OCLC 45248363.
- ^ "Ouverture de la cause de béatification de Bartolomé de La Casas". La Croix. 3 October 2002. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2020 – via www.la-croix.com.
- ^ Tierney (1997:272–274)
- ^ "CDH Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas". frayba.org.mx. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010.
- ^ Michael Tangeman, Mexico at the Crossroads: Politics, the Church, and the Poor. Maryknoll NY: Orbis Books 1995, p. 72.
- ^ "Bills and Currency in Current Circulation". Banco de Guatemala. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
- ^ A Glimpse at the History of Lascassas School Archived February 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Lascassas School website, accessed April 19, 2008.
References
- OCLC 2414115.
- Baptiste, Victor N. (1990). Bartolomé de las Casas and Thomas More's Utopia: Connections and Similarities. Labyrinthos. OCLC 246823100.
- OCLC 40130171.
- Boruchoff, David A. (2008). "Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism (review)". Early American Literature. 43 (2): 497–504. S2CID 162314664.
- OCLC 36130668.
- Carozza, Paolo G. (2003). "From Conquest to Constitutions: Retrieving a Latin American Tradition of the Idea of Human Rights" (PDF). Human Rights Quarterly. 25 (2): 281–313. S2CID 145420134. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 July 2011.
- Castro, Daniel (2007). Another Face of Empire. Duke University Press.ISBN 978-0822339304, 978-0822339397
- OCLC 750831024.
- Comas, Juan (1971). "Historical reality and the detractors of Father Las Casas". In Friede, Juan; OCLC 421424974.
- Friede, Juan (1971). "Las Casas and Indigenism in the Sixteenth Century". In Friede, Juan; Keen, Benjamin (eds.). Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and his Work. Collection spéciale: CER. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. pp. 127–234. OCLC 421424974.
- Giménez Fernández, Manuel (1971). "Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Biographical Sketch". In Friede, Juan; Keen, Benjamin (eds.). Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and his Work. Collection spéciale: CER. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. pp. 67–126. OCLC 421424974.
- Glendon, Mary Ann (2003). "The Forgotten Crucible: The Latin American Influence on the Universal Human Rights Idea". Harvard Human Rights Journal. 16.
- Guitar, Lynne (1997). "Encomienda System". In Rodriguez, Junius P. (ed.). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Vol. 1, A–K. Santa Barbara, CA: OCLC 37884790.
- Gunst, Laurie. "Bartolomé de las Casas and the Question of Negro Slavery in the Early Spanish Indies." PhD dissertation, Harvard University 1982.
- Hanke, Lewis (1951). Bartolomé de Las Casas: An interpretation of his life and writings. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
- Hanke, Lewis (1952). Bartolomé de Las Casas: Bookman, Scholar & Propagandist. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Jay, Felix (2002). Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474–1566) in the pages of Father Antonio de Remesal. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-7131-3.
- Keen, Benjamin (1971). "Introduction: Approaches to Las Casas, 1535–1970". In Friede, Juan; Keen, Benjamin (eds.). Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and his Work. Collection spéciale: CER. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. pp. 67–126. OCLC 421424974.
- Keen, Benjamin (1969). "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 49 (4): 703–719. JSTOR 2511162.
- Las Casas, Bartolomé de (1997). "Apologetic History of the Indies". Columbia University Sources of Medieval History.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) From Apologética historia de las Indias (Madrid, 1909), originally translated for Introduction to Contemporary Civilization in the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946, 1954, 1961). - Losada, Ángel (1971). "Controversy between Sepúlveda and Las Casas". In Friede, Juan; Keen, Benjamin (eds.). Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and his Work. Collection spéciale: CER. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. pp. 279–309. OCLC 421424974.
- OCLC 2683160.
- Orique, David T. (2009). "Journey to the Headwaters: Bartolomé de Las Casas in a Comparative Context". The Catholic Historical Review. 95 (1): 1–24. S2CID 159905806.
- Orique, David (2017). "Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474–1566): A "Brevísima" Biographical Sketch". INTI (85/86): 32–51. JSTOR 45129656.
- Parish, Helen Rand; Weidman, Harold E. (1976). "The Correct Birthdate of Bartolomé de las Casas". OCLC 1752092.
- Pierce, Brian (1992). "Bartolomé de las Casas and Truth: Toward a Spirituality of Solidarity". Spirituality Today. 44 (1): 4–19. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011.
- Rand-Parish, Helen (1980). Las Casas as Bishop: A new interpretation based on his holograph petition in the Hans P. Kraus Collection of Hispanic American Manuscripts. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
- Rand-Parish, Helen; Weidman, Harold E. (1980). Las Casas en Mexico: Historia y obra desconocidas. Ciudad de Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Rand-Parish, Helen; Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1984). Bartolomé de las Casas: Liberation of the Oppressed. Berkeley.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Rubiés, Joan-Pau (2007). "Another face of empire. Bartolomé de Las Casas, indigenous rights, and ecclesiastical imperialism. By Daniel Castro. (Latin America Otherwise. Languages, Empires, Nations.) pp. xii+234. Durham–London: Duke University Press, 2007" (PDF). The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 58 (4): 767–768. .
- OCLC 62090786.
- Sullivan, Patrick Francis, ed. (1995). Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolomé de las Casas, 1474–1566, A Reader. Kansas City, Missouri: Sheed and Ward.
- Tierney, Brian (1997). The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law and Church Law 1150–1625. Scholar's Press for Emory University. pp. 272–274.
- Wagner, Henry Raup; Parish, Helen Rand (1967). The Life and Writings of Bartolomé de Las Casas. University of New Mexico Press.
- Wynter, Sylvia (1984a). "New Seville and the Conversion Experience of Bartolomé de Las Casas: Part One". Jamaica Journal. 17 (2): 25–32.
- Wynter, Sylvia (1984b). "New Seville and the Conversion Experience of Bartolomé de Las Casas: Part Two". Jamaica Journal. 17 (3): 46–55.
External links
- Biblioteca de autor Bartolomé de las Casas (in Spanish)
- Works by Bartolomé de las Casas at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Bartolomé de las Casas at Internet Archive
- Works by Bartolomé de las Casas at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Bartolomé de Las Casas Study Resources
- Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Perpetrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II From the Collections at the Library of Congress
- Bartolomé de las Casas Statement of Opinion, (1542.) From the Collections at the Library of Congress
- Narratio Regionum Indicarum per Hispanos Quosdam Deuastatarum Verissima From the Collections at the Library of Congress
- Las Casas' Articulation of the Indians' Moral Agency: Looking Back at Las Casas Through Fichte – Rolando Pérez.