Basil II
Basil II | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Byzantine emperor | |||||
Reign | 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 | ||||
Coronation | 22 April 960 as co-emperor | ||||
Predecessor | John I Tzimiskes | ||||
Successor | Constantine VIII | ||||
Born | 958 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) | ||||
Died | 15 December 1025 (aged 66–67) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire | ||||
Burial | Church of St. John the Theologian, Constantinople | ||||
| |||||
Greek | Βασίλειος | ||||
Dynasty | Macedonian | ||||
Father | Romanos II | ||||
Mother | Theophano | ||||
Religion | Chalcedonian Christianity[note 1] |
Basil II
The early years of Basil's reign were dominated by civil wars against two powerful generals from the
Despite near-constant warfare, Basil distinguished himself as an administrator, reducing the power of the
Physical appearance and personality
The courtier and historian
According to the 19th century historian George Finlay, Basil saw himself as "prudent, just, and devout; others considered him severe, rapacious, cruel, and bigoted. For Greek learning he cared little, and he was a type of the higher Byzantine moral character, which retained far more of its Roman than its Greek origin".[12] The modern historian John Julius Norwich wrote of Basil: "No lonelier man ever occupied the Byzantine throne. And it is hardly surprising: Basil was ugly, dirty, coarse, boorish, philistine and almost pathologically mean. He was in short deeply un-Byzantine. He cared only for the greatness of his Empire. No wonder that in his hands it reached its apogee".[13]
Early life and rule (960-976)
Basil II was born in 958.
Basil and Constantine were too young to rule in their own right when Romanos died in 963.
On 20 September, Phokas married Theophano, but problems resulted; it was a second marriage for each spouse and Nikephoros was thought to be the godfather of Basil or his brother, perhaps both. Although
Sole emperor (976-1025)
Rebellions in Anatolia and alliance with Rus'
Basil was a very successful soldier on horseback and through his achievement he proved himself to be an able general and a strong ruler. In the early years of his reign, administration remained in the hands of Basil Lekapenos. As president of the Byzantine Senate, Lekapenos was a wily, gifted politician who hoped the young emperors would be his puppets. The younger Basil waited and watched without interfering, devoting himself to learning the details of administrative business and military science.[45]
Skleros and Phokas, both of whom were experienced generals, wanted to assume the Imperial position that Nikephoros II and John I had held, and thus return Basil to the role of impotent cypher. Basil, showing a penchant for ruthlessness, took to the field himself and suppressed the rebellions of both
The relationship between the two generals was complicated; Phokas was instrumental in defeating the rebellion of Skleros but when Phokas later rebelled, Skleros returned from exile to support him. When Phokas died in battle,[50] Skleros, whom Phokas had imprisoned, assumed the leadership of the rebellion.[51] Basil's brother Constantine—who had no interest in politics, statecraft, or the military[52]–led troops alongside Basil; this was the only military command Constantine would hold. The campaign ended without combat[53] when Skleros was forced to surrender to Basil in 989.[51] Skleros was allowed to live but he died blind, either through disease or from being blinded as punishment for his insurrection.[54]
These rebellions had a profound effect on Basil's outlook and methods of governance. Psellos describes the defeated Skleros giving Basil the following advice, which he took to heart: "Cut down the governors who become over-proud. Let no generals on campaign have too many resources. Exhaust them with unjust exactions, to keep them busied with their own affairs. Admit no woman to the imperial councils. Be accessible to no-one. Share with few your most intimate plans."[55]
To defeat these dangerous revolts, Basil formed an alliance with Prince
Vladimir had researched various religions, having sent delegates to various countries. Marriage was not his main reason for choosing
Campaigns against the Fatimid Caliphate
Once the internal strife was quelled, Basil turned his attention to the Empire's other enemies. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of Nikephoros II and John I had nearly been lost to the
Manjutakin's attacks, and Basil's first expedition to Syria
Encouraged by the defectors after the death of emir Sa'd al-Dawla, Al-Aziz decided to renew his attacks on the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo, a Byzantine protectorate, perhaps expecting Basil would not interfere. Manjutakin invaded the emirate, defeated a Byzantine force under the doux of Antioch Michael Bourtzes in June 992, and laid siege to Aleppo. The city easily resisted. In early 993, after thirteen months of campaigning, a lack of supplies forced Manjutakin to return to Damascus.[62]
In 994, Manjutakin resumed his offensive and in September scored a major victory at the Battle of the Orontes against Bourtzes. Bourtzes' defeat forced Basil to intervene personally in the East; with his army, he rode through Asia Minor to Aleppo in sixteen days, arriving in April 995. Basil's sudden arrival and the exaggeration of his army's strength circulating in the Fatimid camp caused panic in the Fatimid army, especially because Manjutakin, expecting no threat, had ordered his cavalry horses to be dispersed around the city for pasture. Despite having a considerably larger and well-rested army, Manjutakin was at a disadvantage. He burned his camp and retreated to Damascus without battle.[63] The Byzantines besieged Tripoli unsuccessfully and occupied Tartus, which they refortified and garrisoned with Armenian troops. Al-Aziz now prepared to take to the field in person against the Byzantines and initiated large-scale preparations but they were abandoned upon his death.[64][65]
Second expedition to Syria, and peace
Warfare between the two powers continued as the Byzantines supported an
In 1000, a ten-year truce was concluded between the two states.
Conquest of Bulgaria
Basil sought to restore former territories of the Byzantine Empire. At the start of the second millennium, he fought
Because the Bulgars had been raiding Byzantine lands since 976, the Byzantine government sought to cause dissension among them by allowing the escape of their captive emperor Boris II of Bulgaria. This ploy failed so Basil used a respite from his conflict with the nobility to lead a 30,000-strong army into Bulgaria and besiege Sredets (Sofia) in 986.[73][74] Taking losses and worried about the loyalty of some of his governors, Basil lifted the siege and returned for Thrace but he fell into an ambush and suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of the Gates of Trajan.[74] Basil escaped with the help of his Varangian Guard and attempted to recover his losses by turning Samuel's brother Aron against him. Aron was tempted by Basil's offer of his sister Anna in marriage, but the negotiations failed when Aron discovered the bride he was sent was an imposter. By 987, Samuel had eliminated Aron. Another brother of Samuel, called David, was killed in 976 by the Vlachs, the guards of caravans, between Prespa and Kastoria.[75] Although the titular emperor Roman of Bulgaria was captured in 991, Basil lost Moesia to the Bulgarians.[35][76]
While Basil was distracted with internal rebellions and recovering the military situation on his eastern frontier, Samuel had extended his rule from the
Beginning in 1000, Basil was free to focus on a war of conquest against Bulgaria, which he fought with grinding persistence and strategic insight. In 1000, the Byzantine generals
After turning homeward with his extensive plunder, Samuel was intercepted near Skopje by a Byzantine army commanded by Basil, whose forces stormed the Bulgarian camp, defeating the Bulgarians and recovering the plunder from Adrianople. Skopje surrendered shortly after the battle,[31] and Basil treated its governor Romanos with overt kindness.[82] In 1005, the governor of Dyrrhachium Ashot Taronites surrendered his city to the Byzantines.[31] The defection of Dyrrhachium completed the isolation of Samuel's core territories in the highlands of western Macedonia. Samuel was forced into an almost entirely defensive stance; he extensively fortified the passes and routes from the coastlines and valleys held by the Byzantines to the territory remaining in his possession. During the next few years, the Byzantine offensive slowed and no significant gains were made, although an attempt by the Bulgarians to counter-attack in 1009 was defeated at the Battle of Kreta, to the east of Thessalonica.[35]
In 1014, Basil was ready to launch a campaign aimed at destroying Bulgarian resistance. On 29 July 1014, in the Battle of Kleidion, he and his general Nikephoros Xiphias outmaneuvered the Bulgarian army,[83] which was defending one of the fortified passes.[84] Samuel avoided capture through the valor of his son Gabriel. Having crushed the Bulgarians, Basil exacted his vengeance cruelly—he was said to have captured 15,000 prisoners and fully blinded 99 of every 100 men, leaving one one-eyed man in each cohort to lead the rest back to their ruler. A possible reason for this vengeance was that, in Byzantine eyes, the Bulgarians were rebels against their authority, and blinding was the usual punishment meted out to rebels.[85] Samuel was struck down by the sight of his blinded army and died two days later[34] on 6 October 1014 after suffering a stroke.[83]
Bulgaria fought on for four more years, its resistance fired by Basil's cruelty, but it submitted in 1018.
The rulers of neighbouring Croatia,
Khazar campaign
Although the Kievan Rus' had broken the power of the
Campaigns against Georgia
The integrity of the Byzantine Empire was threatened after a full-scale rebellion led by Bardas Skleros broke out in 976. After winning a series of battles, the rebels conquered Asia Minor. In the urgency of the situation, Georgian prince
In late 1021, Basil, at the head of a large Byzantine army reinforced by the Varangian Guard, attacked the Georgians and their Armenian allies, recovering Phasiane and continuing beyond the frontiers of Tao into inner Georgia.[97] King George burned the city of Oltisi to prevent it falling to the enemy and retreated to Kola. A bloody battle was fought near the village Shirimni at Lake Palakazio on 11 September; the emperor won a costly victory, forcing George I to retreat northwards into his kingdom. Basil plundered the country and withdrew for winter to Trebizond.[98]
Several attempts to negotiate the conflict failed. George received reinforcements from the
Fiscal policies
In 992, Basil concluded a treaty with the
Seeking to protect the lower and middle classes, Basil made ruthless war upon the system of immense estates in Asia Minor
Military policies
Basil II was praised by his army[114] because he spent most of his reign campaigning with it rather than sending orders from Constantinople, as had most of his predecessors. This allowed his army to be largely supportive of him, often making his stance in political and church matters unquestionable. He lived the life of a soldier to the point of eating the same daily rations as the rest of the army. He also took the children of dead army officers under his protection and offered them shelter, food and education.[115] Many of these children became his soldiers and officers, taking the places of their fathers.[116] One of them, Isaac Komnenos, later became emperor himself.
Basil did not innovate in terms of military organization: in the conquered territories he introduced both the small themes or strategiai, centred around a fortress town, that were such a common feature of the 10th-century reconquests of the East under Phokas and Tzimiskes,[117] as well as the extensive regional commands under a doux or katepano (Iberia in 1000,[118] Asprakania or Upper Media in 1019/22,[119] Paristrion in 1000/20,[120] Bulgaria in 1018,[121] and Sirmium in 1019[122]). The exact size of the army under Basil II is unknown, but estimates put it as high as 110,000 men, excluding the imperial tagmata in Constantinople; a considerable force, compared with the nominal establishment force of c. 120,000 in the 9th–10th centuries, or the 150,000–160,000 of the field armies under Justinian I.[123] At the same time, however, under Basil the practice began of relying on allied states—most notably Venice—for naval power, beginning the slow decline of the Byzantine navy during the 11th century.[124]
Later life, death and burial
Basil II later secured the annexation of the sub-kingdoms of
Basil was preparing a military expedition to recover the island of
From the day that the King of Heaven called upon me to become the Emperor, the great overlord of the world, no one saw my spear lie idle. I stayed alert throughout my life and protected the children of the New Rome, valiantly campaigning both in the West and at the outposts of the East ... O, man, seeing now my tomb here, reward me for my campaigns with your prayers. [115]
In 1260, during the unsuccessful Nicean Byzantine siege of Constantinople, then held by the Latin Empire, a corpse was found, upright in a corner of the Church of St. John the Evangelist, with a shepherd's flute placed in its mouth. An inscription allowed the Nicaean soldiers to identify the corpse as the remains of Basil II. The body of Basil II was transferred to the Monastery of the Saviour at Selymbria. The following year Constantinople was recovered by the Byzantines.[134]
Legacy
Assessment
An assessment of the reign in the eyes of the subsequent generations is given by Psellos:
He crushed rebellions, subdued the feudal landowners, conquered the enemies of the Empire, notably in the Danubian provinces and the East. Everywhere the might of Roman arms was respected and feared. The treasury was overflowing with the accumulated plunder of Basil's campaigns. Even the lamp of learning, despite the emperor's known indifference, was burning still, if somewhat dimly. The lot of ordinary folk in Constantinople must have been pleasant enough. For most of them life was gay and colourful, and if the city's defensive fortifications were at some points in disrepair they had no cause to dread attacks.[135]
Basil II's reign is one of the most significant in Byzantine history. His constant military campaigns led to the zenith of Byzantine power in the
At this time, the Macedonian Renaissance was taking effect, seeing the rise of classical Greek scholarship being assimilated into Christian art and the study of ancient Greek philosophy being widespread.[139][140] The studies of these subjects, and the enlargement projects of the emperors, greatly expanded the library of the University of Constantinople, which again established itself as the main source of learning for its day.[141] Though he was not a man of literature, Basil was a relatively pious ruler who involved himself in the construction of churches, monasteries and, to some extent, cities.[142]
Literary works, eulogies and poems were made by the great cities of the Byzantine Empire that mostly tried to juxtapose the classic past of kingdoms and empires with the new expansion of Basil II in which he was compared with many important figures of the east such as Cyrus the Great and Artaxerxes.[143] He was also particularly compared with Alexander the Great who was believed to be Basil's ancestor.[143] Classical works such as "The Persians" by the ancient Greek tragedian Aeschylus were among the most recited in the empire during the expansion given the different confrontations against the caliphates that the Byzantines indiscriminately and classically called "Medes".[144][145] Despite the great expansion during his reign, his military and non-scholastic character led him to be criticized and related to the ancient Spartan monarchs or tyrants who at that time were remembered for being men of action, cruelty and decision who, like Basil, paid little attention to promoting the arts or literary culture and preferred a military environment.[146]
Basil II lacked heirs[147] due to the "dearth of cousins found within the Macedonian dynasty",[42][note 10] so he was succeeded by his brother Constantine and his family, who proved to be ineffective rulers. Nevertheless, fifty years of prosperity and intellectual growth followed because the funds of state were full, the borders were safe from intruders, and the Empire remained the most powerful political entity of the age. At the end of Basil II's reign, the Byzantine Empire had a population of approximately 12 million people.[149]
Although they were beneficial, Basil's achievements were reversed very quickly. Many of the Georgian, Armenian and Fatimid campaigns were undone after the succession crisis and eventual civil war after the
Modern views and depictions in literature
- Bulgarian commentator Alexander Kiossev wrote in Understanding the Balkans: "The hero [of] a nation might be the villain of its neighbour ... The Byzantine emperor Basil the Murderer [sic] of Bulgarians, a crucial Greek pantheon figure, is no less important as [a] subject of hatred for our national mythology".[154] During the 20th century in Greece, interest in Basil II led to a number of biographies and historical novels about him. One of these is Basil Bulgaroktonos (1964) by historical fiction writer Kostas Kyriazis . Written as a sequel to his previous work Theophano (1963) which focuses on Basil's mother, it examines Basil's life through three fictional narrators and has been continuously reprinted since 1964.[155] Rosemary Sutcliff's 1976 historical fiction novel Blood Feud depicts Basil II from the point of view of a member of his recently created Varangian Guard.[156]
- Struggle for Macedonia again set Greeks and Bulgarians in bitter enmity with each other.[159]
- Ion Dragoumis, who was Delta's lover and was deeply involved in that struggle, in 1907 published the book Martyron kai Iroon Aima (Martyrs' and Heroes' Blood), which is resentful towards anything remotely Bulgarian. He urges Greeks to follow the example of Basil II: "Instead of blinding so many people, Basil should have better killed them instead. On one hand these people would not suffer as eyeless survivors, on the other the sheer number of Bulgarians would have diminished by 15 000, which is something very useful." Later in the book, Dragoumis foresees the appearance of "new Basils" who would "cross the entire country and will look for Bulgarians in mountains, caves, villages and forests and will make them flee in refuge or kill them".[160]
- Basil Basileus is a comic book series by Theocharis Spyros and Chrysa Sakel. The plot and illustration is based on academic bibliography. The story is set in the early years of Basil II, from the time of John I Tzimiskes and the formation of the Varangian Guard until the final years of Basil II.[161]
Ancestry
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See also
Notes
- East-West Schism of 16 July 1054.[1]
- ^ Basil Lekapenos' control of power until 985 has caused some historians, such as Antonopoulou, Kotzabassi & Loukaki (2015, p. 274) and Schulman (2002, p. 51) to date Basil II's reign from 985 to 1025, although these are only exceptions.
- ^ These portraits of Basil II and Constantine VIII are generally believed to be reliable.[25] Constantine is portrayed as having a longer beard, which coincides with how he's depicted in later coinage.[101]
- nomismata".[103]
References
- ^ Sue 2014.
- ^ a b Foss 2005, pp. 93–102.
- ^ a b c d e f PMBZ, Basileios II. (#20838).
- ^ Stephenson 2010, pp. 66–80.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 62.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, pp. 89–96.
- ^ a b Whittow 1996, p. 348.
- ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Head 1980, pp. 233–234.
- ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Finlay 1856, p. 427.
- ^ Norwich 1997, p. 216.
- ^ PBW 2016.
- ^ a b ODB, "Basil II" (C.M. Brand, A. Cutler), pp. 261–2.
- ^ a b PMBZ, Romanos II. (#26834).
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 93–94.
- ^ ODB, "Porphyrogennetos" (M. McCormack), p. 1701.
- ^
- McCabe 1913, p. 140
- Talbot & Sullivan 2005, pp. 99–100
- Vogt 1923a, pp. 67–68
- Durant & Durant 1950, p. 429
- Garland 2002, pp. 126, 128
- ^ Bréhier 1977, p. 127.
- ^ Diehl 1927, p. C-207.
- ^ Miller 1921, p. 47.
- ^ Garland 2002, pp. 128, 271 (note 13).
- ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 494.
- ^ a b ODB, "Constantine VIII" (C. M. Brand, A. Cutler), pp. 503–504.
- ^ PMBZ, Konstantinos VIII. (#23735).
- ^ ODB, "Anna" (A. Poppe), p. 103.
- ^ PMBZ, Anna (#20436).
- ^ a b c d Garland 2002, p. 128.
- ^ a b PMBZ, Theophano (#28125).
- ^ a b c d e f g h Cartwright 2017.
- ^ a b Treadgold 1997, pp. 495–498.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d Bury 1911, p. 476.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Holmes 2003.
- ^ ODB, "Basil the Nothos" (A. Kazhdan, A. Cutler), p. 270.
- ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 498–499.
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 348–349.
- ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 43.
- ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 65.
- ^ Vogt 1923a, p. 79.
- ^ a b c d e Brubaker & Tougher 2016, p. 313.
- ^ Talbot & Sullivan 2005, p. 22, 220.
- ^ Vogt 1923b, p. 84.
- ^
- Stephenson 2010, p. 34
- Bury 1911, p. 476
- Ringrose 2004, p. 130
- ^ Ringrose 2004, p. 130.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 36.
- ^ Shephard 2000, p. 596.
- ^ a b Cartwright 2018a.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 465.
- ^ a b Magdalino 2003, p. 46.
- ^ Norwich 1991, p. 231.
- ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 6.
- ^ Sewter 1953, p. 43.
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 60.
- ^ Cross, Morgilevski & Conant 1936, p. 479.
- ^ Leong 1997, p. 5.
- ^ Morson 1998.
- ^ Lev 1995, p. 202.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 324–325.
- ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 379–380.
- ^ a b Wortley 2010, p. 322.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 325.
- ^ Lev 1995, pp. 201–203.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 86.
- ^ Stevenson 1926, p. 252.
- ^ Lev 1995, pp. 203–205.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 32.
- ^ Lev 1995, p. 205.
- ^ Lev 1995, pp. 203, 205–208.
- ^ Talbot & Sullivan 2005, p. 3.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 402.
- ^ a b Stephenson 2010, p. 14.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 312.
- ^ Norwich 1981, p. 158.
- ^ Finlay 1856, p. 440–441.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 326.
- ^ Finlay 1856, p. 442.
- ^ Finlay 1856, pp. 442–443.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 328.
- ^ Finlay 1856, p. 443.
- ^ a b Stephenson 2010, p. 3.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 26.
- ^ ODB, pp. 297–298.
- ^ a b Cartwright 2018c.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 74.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 339.
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 76.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 60.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 104.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 77.
- ^ Harris 2015, p. 192.
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 180.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 2.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 65.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 347.
- ^ a b Mango 2002, p. 309.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 483.
- ^ Spatharákīs 1976, pp. 91−95.
- ^
- Vogt 1923b, p. 94
- Norwich 1981, p. 158
- Holmes 2003
- ^ Cooper & Decker 2012, p. 96.
- ^ Laiou 2007, p. 303.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 280.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 79.
- ^ Vogt 1923b, p. 92.
- ^ a b Makris 2006.
- ^ ODB, "Allelengyon" (A. Cutler), p. 69.
- ^ Thomas & Thomas 1987, p. 165.
- ^ Sewter 1953, p. 19.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 85.
- ^ Stephenson & Hoppenbrouwers 2014, p. 9.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 66.
- ^ a b Herrin 2013, p. 219.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 260.
- ^ Kühn 1991, pp. 61ff..
- ^ Kühn 1991, p. 187.
- ^ Kühn 1991, p. 192.
- ^ Kühn 1991, p. 223.
- ^ Kühn 1991, p. 227.
- ^ Kühn 1991, p. 233.
- ^ Haldon 1999, pp. 100–103.
- ^ Haldon 1999, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 528–529.
- ^ a b Hussey 1998.
- ^ a b Thurn 1973, p. 868 (note 84).
- ^ Schreiner 1975, p. 158. Δεκεμβρίου ιβ'.
- ^ Grierson 1962, p. 58.
- ^ Schreiner 1975, p. 165. Δεκεμβρίου ιγ'.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 348.
- ^ Rogers 2010, p. 126.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 95.
- ^ Sewter 1953, p. 12.
- ^ Wortley 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 199.
- ^ Blöndal & Benedikz 2007, p. 171.
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 277.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 256.
- ^ Lawler 2011, p. 118.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 280.
- ^ a b Manafis 2020, [page needed].
- ^ Magdalino 2004, pp. 611–643.
- ^ Moennin 2016, pp. 159–189.
- ^ Ševčenko 1968.
- ^ Magdalino 2003, p. 66.
- ^ a b Sewter 1953, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 570.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 206.
- ^ Holmes 2005, p. 203.
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 310.
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 189.
- ^ Kiossev 2000.
- ^ Kyriazis 1964.
- ^ Sutcliff 1976.
- ^ Beaton 1999, p. 103.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 120.
- ^ Danforth 1998.
- ^ Dragoumis 1907.
- ^ https://www.byzantinetales.com/basilbasileus
- ^ a b c d e f g h i ODB, "Macedonian dynasty" genealogical table, p. 1263.
- ^ a b Garland 2002, pp. 126, 128
- ^ a b c ODB, "Lekapenos" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1203–1204.
- ^ Charanis 1963, p. 35.
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External links
Media related to Basileios II at Wikimedia Commons
- Riccardi, Lorenzo, «Un altro cielo»: l'imperatore Basilio II e le arti, in "Rivista dell'Istituto Nazionale di Archeologia e Storia dell'Arte", 61 (III serie, XXIX), 2006 [2011] ISSN 0392-5285, pp. 103–146.
- Riccardi, Lorenzo, Observations on Basil II as Patron of the Arts, in Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art, I, Collection of articles. Materials of the Conference of Young Specialists (St. Petersburg State University, 1–5 December 2010), St. Petersburg 2011 (ISBN 978-5-288-05174-6), pp. 39–45.