Basra
Basra
ٱلْبَصْرَة | |
---|---|
City | |
AST) | |
Area code | (+964) 40 |
Website | www |
Basra (
Historically, the city is one of the ports from which the fictional
Etymology
The city has had many names throughout history, Basrah being the most common. In Arabic, the word baṣrah means "the overwatcher," which may have been an allusion to the city's origin as an Arab military base against the
History
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
The city was founded at the beginning of the Islamic era in 636 and began as a garrison encampment for
In 639 Umar established this encampment as a city with five districts, and appointed
In 656, Uthman was murdered and Ali was appointed Caliph. Ali first installed Uthman ibn Hanif as Basra's governor, who was followed by ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas. These men held the city for Ali until the latter's death in 661.
Infrastructure
Why Basra was chosen as a site for the new city remains unclear. The original site lay 15 km from the
Nevertheless, Basra overcame these natural disadvantages and rapidly grew into the second-largest city in Iraq, if not the entire Islamic world. Its role as a military encampment meant that the soldiers had to be fed, and since those soldiers were receiving government salaries, they had money to spend. Thus, both the government and private entrepreneurs invested heavily in developing a vast agricultural infrastructure in the Basra region. These investments were made with the expectation of a profitable return, indicating the value of the Basra food market. Although Zanj slaves from Africa were put to work on these construction projects, most of the labor was done by free men working for wages. Governors sometimes directly supervised these projects, but usually they simply assigned the land while most of the financing was done by private investors.[14]
The result of these investments was a massive irrigation system covering some 57,000 hectares between the Shatt al-Arab and the now-dry western channel of the Tigris. This system was first reported in 962[citation needed], when just 8,000 hectares of it remained in use, for the cultivation of date palms, while the rest had become desert. This system consists of a regular pattern of two-meter-high ridges in straight lines, separated by old canal beds. The ridges are extremely saline, with salt deposits up to 20 centimeters thick, and are completely barren. The former canal beds are less salty and can support a small population of salt-resistant plants. Contemporary authors recorded how the Zanj slaves were put to work clearing the fields of salty topsoil and putting them into piles; the result was the ridges that remain today. This represents an enormous amount of work: H.S. Nelson calculated that 45 million tons of earth were moved in total, and with his extremely high estimate of one man moving two tons of soil per day, this would have taken a decade of strenuous work by 25,000 men.[14]
Ultimately, Basra's irrigation canals were unsustainable, because they were built at too little of a slope for the water flow to carry salt deposits away. This required the clearing of salty topsoil by the Zanj slaves in order to keep the fields from becoming too saline to grow crops. After Basra was sacked in by Zanj rebels in the late 800s and then by the Qarmatians in the early 900s, there was no financial incentive to invest in restoring the irrigation system, and the infrastructure was almost completely abandoned. Finally, in the late 900s, the city of Basra was entirely relocated, with the old site being abandoned and a new one developing on the banks of the Shatt al-Arab, where it has remained ever since.[14]
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
The
Ibn al-Harith spent his year in office trying to put down Nafi' ibn al-Azraq's
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan reconquered Basra in 691, and Basra remained loyal to his governor al-Hajjaj during Ibn Ashʿath's mutiny (699–702). However, Basra did support the rebellion of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab against Yazid II during the 720s.
Abbasid Caliphate and its Golden Age (750–1258)
In the late 740s, Basra fell to
From 945 to 1055, the Iranian
The Oghuz Turk
The Great Friday Mosque was constructed in Basra. In 1122,
The Assassin Rashid-ad-Din-Sinan was born in Basra on or between 1131 and 1135.
Mongol rule and thereafter (1258–1500s)
In 1258, the Mongols under
In 1290[19] fighting erupted at the Persian Gulf port of Basra among the Genoese, between the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions.
Ibn Battuta visited Basra in the 14th century, noting it "was renowned throughout the whole world, spacious in area and elegant in its courts, remarkable for its numerous fruit-gardens and its choice fruits, since it is the meeting place of the two seas, the salt and the fresh."[20] Ibn Battuta also noted that Basra consisted of three-quarters: the Hudayl quarter, the Banu Haram quarter, and the Iranian quarter (mahallat al-Ajam).[21] Fred Donner adds: "If the first two reveal that Basra was still predominantly an Arab town, the existence of an Iranian quarter clearly reveals the legacy of long centuries of intimate contact between Basra and the Iranian plateau."[21]
The Arab Al-Mughamis tribe established control over Basra in the early fifteenth century, however, they quickly fell under influence of the
Portuguese empire
In 1523, the Portuguese under the command of António Tenreiro crossed from Aleppo to Basra. In 1550, the local Kingdom of Basra and tribal rulers trusted the Portuguese against the Ottomans, from then on the Portuguese threatened to invoke an invasion and conquest of Basra several times. From 1595 the Portuguese acted as military protectors of Basra,[28] and in 1624 the Portuguese assisted the Ottoman Pasha of Basra in repelling a Persian invasion. The Portuguese were granted a share of the customs revenue and freedom from tolls. From about 1625 until 1668, Basra and the Delta marshlands were in the hands of local chieftains independent of the Ottoman administration at Baghdad.
Ottoman and British rule
Basra was, for a long time, a flourishing commercial and cultural center. It was captured by the
The
In 1911, the Encyclopaedia Britannica reported "about 4000 Jews and perhaps 6000 Christians"
During World War I, British forces captured Basra from the Ottomans, occupying the city on November 22, 1914. British officials and engineers (including Sir George Buchanan) subsequently modernized Basra's harbor, which due to the increased commercial activity in the area became one of the most important ports in the Persian Gulf, developing new mercantile links with India and East Asia.[citation needed]
Monarchy to Saddam era (1921–2003)
During World War II, Basra was an important port through which flowed much of the equipment and supplies sent to the Soviet Union by other Allies of World War II. At the end of the war, the city's population numbered approximately 93,000 people.[citation needed]
The population of Basra was 101,535 in 1947,
After the war, Saddam erected 99 memorial statues to Iraqi military officers killed during the war along the bank of the Shatt-al-arab river, all pointing their fingers towards Iran. After the 1991
As part of the Iraqi no-fly zones conflict, United States Air Force fighter jets carried out two airstrikes against Basra on January 25, 1999. The airstrikes resulted in missiles landing in the al-Jumhuriya neighborhood of Basra, killed 11 Iraqi civilians and wounding 59. General Anthony Zinni, then commander of U.S. forces in the Persian Gulf, acknowledged that it was possible that "a missile may have been errant." While such casualty numbers pale in comparison to later events, the bombing occurred one day after Arab foreign ministers, meeting in Egypt, refused to condemn four days of air strikes against Iraq in December 1998. This was described by Iraqi information minister Human Abdel-Khaliq[d] as giving U.S.-led forces "an Arab green card" to continue their involvement in the conflict.[33]
A second revolt in 1999 led to mass executions by the Iraqi government in and around Basra. Subsequently, the Iraqi government deliberately neglected the city, and much commerce was diverted to
Workers in Basra's oil industry have been involved in extensive organization and labour conflict. They held a two-day strike in August 2003, and formed the nucleus of the independent
Post-Saddam period (2003–present)
In March through to May 2003, the outskirts of Basra were the scene of some of the heaviest fighting in the
On 21 April 2004, a
On 19 September 2005, two
The British transferred control of Basra province to the Iraqi authorities in 2007, four-and-a-half years after the invasion.[37] A BBC survey of local residents found that 86% thought the presence of British forces since 2003 had had an overall negative effect on the province.[38]
Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf was appointed Police Chief by the central government with the task of taking on the militias. He was outspoken against the targeting of women by the militias.[39] Talking to the BBC, he said that his determination to tackle the militia had led to almost daily assassination attempts.[40] This was taken as sign that he was serious in opposing the militias.[41]
In March 2008, the Iraqi Army launched a major offensive, code-named Saulat al-Fursan (Charge of the White Knights), aimed at forcing the Mahdi Army out of Basra. The assault was planned by General Mohan Furaiji and approved by Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.[42]
In April 2008, following the failure to disarm militant groups, both Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf and General Mohan Furaiji were removed from their positions in Basra.[43]
Basra was scheduled to host the
In 2023, the city hosted the long scheduled 25th Arabian Gulf Cup where the Iraqi team won.
Geography
Basra is located in the Arabian Peninsula on the Shatt-Al-Arab waterway, downstream of which is the Persian Gulf. The Shatt-Al-Arab and Basra waterways define the eastern and western borders of Basra, respectively. The city is penetrated by a complex network of canals and streams, vital for irrigation and other agricultural use. These canals were once used to transport goods and people throughout the city, but during the last two decades, pollution and a continuous drop in water levels have made river navigation impossible in the canals. Basra is roughly 110 km (68 mi) from the Persian Gulf.
Climate
Basra has a hot
An all-time high temperature was recorded on 22 July 2016, when daytime readings soared to 53.9 °C (129.0 °F), which is the highest temperature that has ever been recorded in Iraq.[45][46] This is one of the hottest temperatures ever measured on the planet.[45] The following night, the night time low temperature was 38.8 °C (101.8 °F), which was one of the highest minimum temperatures on any given day, only outshone by Khasab, Oman and Death Valley, United States. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Basra was −4.7 °C (23.5 °F) on 22 January 1964.[47]
Climate data for Basra (1991-2020) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 34.0 (93.2) |
39.0 (102.2) |
39.0 (102.2) |
42.0 (107.6) |
48.0 (118.4) |
51.6 (124.9) |
53.9 (129.0) |
52.2 (126.0) |
49.6 (121.3) |
46.0 (114.8) |
37.0 (98.6) |
30.0 (86.0) |
53.9 (129.0) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 18.7 (65.7) |
21.7 (71.1) |
26.8 (80.2) |
33.4 (92.1) |
40.3 (104.5) |
45.0 (113.0) |
47.0 (116.6) |
47.2 (117.0) |
43.3 (109.9) |
37.2 (99.0) |
27.0 (80.6) |
20.5 (68.9) |
34.0 (93.2) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 13.0 (55.4) |
15.5 (59.9) |
20.2 (68.4) |
26.6 (79.9) |
33.3 (91.9) |
37.4 (99.3) |
38.9 (102.0) |
38.5 (101.3) |
34.7 (94.5) |
28.8 (83.8) |
20.0 (68.0) |
14.4 (57.9) |
26.8 (80.2) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 8.3 (46.9) |
10.1 (50.2) |
14.3 (57.7) |
20.1 (68.2) |
26.2 (79.2) |
29.1 (84.4) |
30.7 (87.3) |
29.9 (85.8) |
26.3 (79.3) |
21.7 (71.1) |
14.4 (57.9) |
9.6 (49.3) |
20.1 (68.1) |
Record low °C (°F) | −4.7 (23.5) |
−4.0 (24.8) |
1.9 (35.4) |
2.8 (37.0) |
8.2 (46.8) |
18.2 (64.8) |
22.2 (72.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
13.1 (55.6) |
6.1 (43.0) |
1.0 (33.8) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 26.9 (1.06) |
17.7 (0.70) |
18.5 (0.73) |
12.8 (0.50) |
4.0 (0.16) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
6.6 (0.26) |
19.1 (0.75) |
25.2 (0.99) |
130.8 (5.15) |
Average rainy days | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 17 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
66.3 | 56.8 | 47.0 | 38.6 | 26.8 | 20.5 | 21.8 | 23.6 | 27.2 | 38.5 | 53.8 | 66.1 | 40.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 186 | 198 | 217 | 248 | 279 | 330 | 341 | 310 | 300 | 279 | 210 | 186 | 3,084 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 6 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 7 | 6 | 8 |
Source 1: | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Weather2Travel for rainy days and sunshine[50][51] |
Effect of climate change
The city of Basra was once well known for its agriculture, but that has since altered due to rising temperatures, increased
Demographics
In Basra the vast majority of the population are ethnic
There are also Feyli Kurds living in the eastern side of the city, they are mainly merchants.
In addition to the Arabs, there is also a community of
Religion
Basra is a major
Assyrians were recorded in the Ottoman census as early as 1911, and a small number of them live in Basra. However, a significant number of the modern community are refugees fleeing persecution from ISIS in the Nineveh Plains, Mosul, and northern Iraq. But ever since the victory of Iraq against ISIS in 2017, many Christians have returned to their Homeland in the Nineveh plains. In 2018 there are about a few thousand Christians in Basra. One of the largest communities of pre-Islamic Mandaeans live in the city, whose headquarters was in the area formerly called Suk esh-Sheikh.
Cityscape
- The old mosque of Basra, the first mosque in Islam outside the Arabian peninsula.
- Sinbad Island is located in the centre of Shatt Al-Arab, near the Miinaalmakl, and extends above the bridge Khaled and is a tourist landmark.
- The Muhhmad Baquir Al-Sadr Bridge, at the union of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was completed in 2017.[53]
- Sayab's House Ruins is the site of the most famous home of the poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab. There is also a statue of Sayab, one of the statues in Basra done by the artist and sculptor nada' Kadhum, located on al-Basrah Corniche; it was unveiled in 1972.
- Basra Sports Cityis the largest sport city in the Middle East, located on the Shatt al-Basra.
- Palm tree forests are largely located on the shores of shatt-al Arab waterway, especially in the nearby village of Abu Al-Khasib.
- Corniche al-Basra is a street which runs on the shore of the Shatt al-Arab; it goes from the Lion of Babylon Square to the Four Palaces.
- Basra International Hotel (formally known as Basra Sheraton Hotel) is located on the Corniche street. The only five star hotel in the city, it is notable for its Shanasheel style exterior design. The hotel was heavily looted during the Iraq War, and it has been renovated recently.
- Sayyed Ali al-Musawi Mosque, also known as the Mosque of the Children of Amer, is located in the city centre, on Al-Gazear Street, and it was built for Shia Imami's leader Sayyed Ali al-Moussawi, whose followers lived in Iraq and neighbouring countries.
- The Fun City of Basra, which is now called Basra Land, is one of the oldest theme-park entertainment cities in the south of the country, and the largest involving a large number of games giants. It was damaged during the war, and has been rebuilt.
- Akhora Park is one of the city's older parks. It is located on al-Basra Street.
- There are four formal presidential palaces in Basra.
- The Latin Church is located on the 14th of July Street.
- Indian Market (Amogaiz) is one of the main bazaars in the city. It is called the Indian Market, since it had Indian vendors working there at the beginning of the last century.
- Hanna-Sheikh Bazaar is an old market; it was established by the powerful and famous Hanna-Sheikh family.
Economy
The city is located along the
Substantial economic activity in Basra is centred around the
Basra is in a fertile agricultural region, with major products including rice,
Shipping, logistics and transport are also major industries in Basra. Basra is home to all of Iraq's six ports; Umm Qasr is the main deep-water port with 22 platforms, some of which are dedicated to specific goods (such as sulphur, seeds, lubricant oil, etc.) The other five ports are smaller in scale and more narrowly specialized. Fishing was an important business before the oil boom. The city also has an international airport, with service into Baghdad with Iraqi Airways—the national airline.
Sports
The city is home to the largest sports stadium in Iraq, the
Famous citizens
- Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya, known as Rabia of Basra, early Muslim mystic
- Ibn al-Haytham, a medieval mathematician, astronomer, and physicist.
- Saadi Youssef, poet from Basra
- Sean Polley, English cricketer, 1981 born in Basra
- Reham Yacoub, female activist
Twin towns and sister cities
Basra is
In fiction
- In Voltaire's Zadig "Bassora" is the site of an international market where the hero meets representatives of all the world religions and concludes that "the world is one large family which meets at Bassora."
- The city of Basra has a major role in world stateemerging after a collapse of civilization, and becomes in effect the capital of the world.
- In the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad, Ahmad and Abu flee to the city from Bagdad. Ahmad falls in love with the sultan's beautiful daughter, who is also desired by his enemy, and former Grand Vizier, Jaffar.
- In Scott K. Andrews' "Operation Motherland," the second book in the post-apocalyptic "Afterblight Chronicles," the character Lee Keegan crash lands his plane in the streets of Basra during the opening chapter.
See also
- List of largest cities of Iraq
- Afro Iraqis
- Basra International Airport
- Dua Kumayl
- Basra reed warbler
- University of Basrah
- Umm Qasr Port
Notes
- ^ The Al-Mughamis were a branch of the Banu'l-Muntafiq who inhabited the area between Kufa and Basra.[22]
- Khuzestan). They often acted as Safavid proxies and were led by a Safavid governor. They participated in campaigns against the Arabs of southern Iraq and Basra. Matthee notes that even though they were nominal Safavid subjects, they had a broad scope of autonomy, and their territory served as a buffer between the Ottomans and the Iranians.[23][24]
- vali) of Basra.[26]Thus, Floor's stance differs slightly.
- ^ His proper name and position description appears to be in error, in that he appears to have held a more junior role at the time. Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur was Iraqi Information Minister between 1997 and 2001. The Iraqi Information Minister between 1991 and 1996 was Hamid Yusuf Hammadi. See List of Iraqi Information Ministers.
References
- ^ Sam Dagher (18 September 2007). "In the 'Venice of the East,' a history of diversity". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
- ^ Central Statistics Organization Iraq. "Population Projection 2015-2018" (PDF). Retrieved 31 August 2020.
- ^ "Al-Baṣrah (District, Iraq) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map and Location". www.citypopulation.de.
- ^ "Iraq's Al Faw port to become largest in Middle East". Global Construction Review. 21 September 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "Iraq to sign $2.625 billion Grand Faw port contract with S.Korea's Daewoo". Reuters. 23 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "PM lays Foundation Stone for next phase of Grand Faw Port | Iraq Business News". 14 April 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "PM Kadhimi lays foundation stone of Basra's Grand Faw port". www.rudaw.net. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "العراق يخطط لإنشاء قاعدة عسكرية بحرية كبيرة". الشرق الأوسط (in Arabic). Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "Iraqi parliament recognizes Basra as economic capital". 27 April 2017.
- ISBN 9780791448083– via Google Books.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica, E. Yarshater, Columbia University, p851
- ^ See Mohammadi Malayeri, M. Dil-i Iranshahr.
- ISSN 1570-6893.
- ^ .
- ^ (Madelung p. 303–04)
- ^ (Brock p.66)
- ^ a b Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol.2, 17.
- ^ Penny Encyclopedia
- ^ Buscarello de Ghizolfi
- ISBN 9780330418799.
- ^ a b Donner, F.M. (1988). "BASRA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 8. pp. 851–855.
- ^ a b c d Matthee 2006a, p. 57.
- ^ Matthee 2006a, p. 55.
- ^ a b c Matthee 2006b, pp. 556–560, 561.
- ^ a b c Longrigg & Lang 2015.
- ^ a b Floor 2008, p. 165.
- ^ Matthee 2006a, p. 53.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org.
- ^ Matthee, Rudi (2006). "IRAQ iv. RELATIONS IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD". Encyclopaedia Iranica (Vol. XIII, Fasc. 5 and Vol. XIII, Fasc. 6). pp. 556–560, 561.
- ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 489. .
- Statistical Office of the United Nations.
- ^ "National Intelligence Survey. Iraq. Section 41, Population" (PDF). CIA. 1960. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.
- ^ Paul Koring (26 January 1999). "USAF air strikes kill 11, injure 59: Iraq". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. p. A8.
These air strikes, by British and USAF warplanes and U.S. cruise missiles, were said to be in response to a release of a report by UN weapons inspectors stating that, as of 1998, the government of Iraq was obstructing their inspection work. Following the four days of bombing in December, the Iraqi government commenced challenging the "no fly zones" unilaterally imposed on the country by the United States, following the 1991 Persian Gulf war. During the month of January, 1999, there were more than 100 incursions by Iraqi aircraft and 20 instances of Iraqi surface-to-air missiles being filed. The January bombing of Basra occurred in the context of retaliatory attacks by the United States.
- ^ "Steven Vincent". Committee to Protect Journalists. 2005.
- ^ "UK soldiers 'freed from militia'". BBC. 20 September 2005. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^ "British smash jail walls to free 2 arrested soldiers". San Francisco Chronicle. 20 September 2005. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^ "UK troops return Basra to Iraqis". BBC News. 16 December 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Basra residents blame UK troops". BBC News. 14 December 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Basra militants targeting women". BBC News. 15 November 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Basra: The Legacy". BBC News. 17 December 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Uncertainty follows Basra exit". BBC News. 15 December 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ Glanz, James (27 March 2008). "Iraqi Army's Assault on Militias in Basra Stalls". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
- ^ "Basra security leaders removed". BBC News. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- ^ "Unrest intensifies in Iraq as Iranian consulate and oil facility stormed". Reuters. 8 September 2018 – via www.reuters.com.
- ^ a b Samenow, Jason (22 July 2016). "Two Middle East locations hit 129 degrees, hottest ever in Eastern Hemisphere, maybe the world". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
- ^ Tapper, James (23 July 2016). "Think you're hot? Spare a thought for Kuwait, as mercury hits record 54C". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
- ^ "Iraqi Meteorological Department, 1970" (PDF). Iraqi Meteorological Department. 1970. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
- ^ "Climate: Basra – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ "Basra Climate and Weather Averages, Iraq". Weather2Travel. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ "40689: Basrah-Hussen (Iraq)". ogimet.com. OGIMET. 19 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
- ^ Al-Rubaie, Azhar. "From palm trees to homes: Iraqi agricultural land lost to desert". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ^ "Maeg - Building ideas". Maeg SpA.
- ^ "After restructuring, South Oil Company is renamed". 5 April 2017.
- ^ "Basrah International Stadium". gpsmartstadium.com. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
- ^ "Twin-cities of Azerbaijan". Azerbaijans.com. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
Bibliography
- Floor, Willem M. (2008). Titles and Emoluments in Safavid Iran: A Third Manual of Safavid Administration, by Mirza Naqi Nasiri. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. ISBN 978-1933823232.
- Hallaq, Wael. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press, 2005
- Hawting, Gerald R. The First Dynasty of Islam. Routledge. 2nd ed, 2000
- Longrigg, Steven Helmsley; Lang, Katherine H. (2015). "Basra from the Mongol conquest to modern period". In Fleet, Kate; ISSN 1873-9830.
- Madelung, Wilferd. "Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr and the Mahdi" in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40. 1981. pp. 291–305.
- Matthee, Rudi (2006a). "Between Arabs, Turks and Iranians: The Town of Basra, 1600-1700". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 69 (1): 53–78. S2CID 159935186.
- Matthee, Rudi (2006b). "IRAQ iv. RELATIONS IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD". Encyclopaedia Iranica (Vol. XIII, Fasc. 5 and Vol. XIII, Fasc. 6). pp. 556–560, 561.
- Tillier, Mathieu. Les cadis d'Iraq et l'Etat abbasside (132/750-334/945). Institut Français du Proche-Orient, 2009
- Vincent, Stephen. Into The Red Zone: A Journey into the Soul of Iraq. ISBN 1-890626-57-0.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. .
- Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit Reports, Maps and Assessments of Iraq's Governorates from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit
- Iraq Image – Basra Satellite Observation Archived 19 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- 2003 Basra map (NIMA)
- Boomtown Basra
- Muhammad and the Spread of Islam by Sanderson Beck
- The Textual History of the Qur'an, Arthur Jeffery, 1946
- Codex of Abu Musa al-Ashari, Arthur Jeffery, 1936