Bathypelagic zone
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The bathypelagic zone or bathyal zone (from Greek βαθύς (bathýs), deep) is the part of the
Physical characteristics
The bathypelagic zone is characterized by a nearly constant temperature of approximately 4 °C (39 °F) and a salinity range of 33-35 g/kg. This region has little to no light because sunlight does not reach this deep in the ocean and
This ocean depth spans from the edge of the
Biogeochemistry
Many of the biogeochemical processes in the bathypelagic region are dependent upon the input of
Particulate organic matter
Organic material from
As POM sinks through the water column, it is consumed by organisms which deplete it of nutrients. The size and density of these particles affect their likelihood of reaching organisms in the bathypelagic zone. Smaller parcels of POM often become aggregated together as they fall, which quickens their descent and prohibits their consumption by other organisms, increasing their likelihood of reaching lower depths.[19][20] The density of these particles may be increased in some regions where minerals associated with some forms of phytoplankton, such as biogenic silica and calcium carbonate "ballast" resulting in more rapid transport to deeper depth.[21]
Carbon
A majority of organic carbon is produced in the
POC is the largest component of
The vertical mixing of DOC-rich surface waters is also a process that delivers carbon to the bathypelagic zone, however, it constitutes a substantially smaller portion of overall transport than POC delivery.[15][20] DOC transport occurs most readily in regions with high rates of ventilation or ocean turnover, such as the interior of gyres or deep water formation sites along the thermohaline circulation.[22]
Calcium carbonate dissolution
The region in the water column at which calcite
Ecology
The ecology of the bathypelagic ecosystem is constrained by its lack of sunlight and
Microbial ecology
A comprehensive understanding of the inputs driving the microbial ecology in the bathypelagic zone is lacking due to limited observational data, but has been improving with advancements in deep-sea technology. A majority of our knowledge of ocean microbial activity comes from studies of the shallower regions of the ocean because it is easier to access, and it was previously assumed that deeper water did not have suitable physical conditions for diverse microbial communities. The bathypelagic zone receives inputs of organic material and POM from the surface ocean on the order of 1-3.6 Pg C/year.[27][28][29]
Research to quantify bacterial-consuming grazers, like heterotrophic eukaryotes, has been limited by difficulties in sampling. Oftentimes organisms do not survive being brought to the surface due to experiencing drastic pressure changes in a short amount of time.[40] Work is underway to quantify cell abundance and biomass, but due to poor survival, it is difficult to get accurate counts. In more recent years there has been an effort to categorize the diversity of the eukaryotic assemblages in the bathypelagic zone using methods to assess the genetic compositions of microbial communities based on supergroups, which is a way to classify organisms that have common ancestry. Some important groups of bacterial grazers include Rhizaria, Alveolata, Fungi, Stramenopiles, Amoebozoa, and Excavata (listed from most to least abundant), with the remaining composition classified as uncertain or other.[41]
Viruses influence biogeochemical cycling through the role they play in marine food webs.[42][43][44] Their overall abundance can be up to two orders of magnitude lower than the mesopelagic zone, however, there is often high viral abundance found around deep-sea hydrothermal vents.[45] The magnitude of their impacts on biological systems is demonstrated by the varying range of viral-to-prokaryote abundance ratios ranging from 1-223, this indicates that there are the same amount or more viruses than prokaryotes.[18]
Fauna
Fish ecology
Despite the lack of light, vision plays a role in life within the bathypelagic with
Diel vertical migration
Some bathypelagic species undergo
Research and exploration
This region is understudied due to a lack of data/observations and difficulty of access (i.e. cost, remote locations, extreme pressure).[15][52] Historically in oceanography, continental margins were the most sampled and researched due to their relatively easy access.[5] However, more recently locations further offshore and at greater depths, such as ocean ridges and seamounts, are being increasingly studied due to advances in technology and laboratory methods, as well as collaboration with industry.[53][54][55][52] The first discovery of communities subsisting off of the chemical energy in hydrothermal vents was aboard an expedition in 1977 led by Jack Corliss, an oceanographer from Oregon State University. More recent advancements include remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and independent gliders and floats.[56][57][58]
Specific technologies and research projects
- SERPENT Project [59]
- Ocean Twilight Zone (OTZ) Project[60]
- DEEP SEARCH Project[61]
- DEEPEND Project[62]
- AUV Sentry[63]
- ROV Jason[64]
- Hybrid ROV Nereus
- AUV Autosub Long Range[65]
Climate change
The oceans act as a buffer for
Carbon storage
The bathypelagic zone currently acts as a significant
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