Battle of Cape Ecnomus
Battle of Cape Ecnomus | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the First Punic War | |||||||
The Naval Battle Near Ecnomus (256 BC) | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Roman Republic | Carthage | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Marcus Atilius Regulus Lucius Manlius Vulso |
Hamilcar Hanno | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
330 ships 138,600[1]–140,000 crew and marines |
350 ships 147,000[2]–150,000 crew and marines | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
24 ships sunk 10,000 men killed |
30 ships sunk 64 ships captured 30,000–40,000 men killed or captured | ||||||
The Battle of Cape Ecnomus or Eknomos (
The Roman fleet of 330 warships plus an unknown number of transports had sailed from Ostia, the port of Rome, and had embarked approximately 26,000 picked legionaries shortly before the battle. They planned to cross to Africa and invade the Carthaginian homeland, in what is now Tunisia. The Carthaginians were aware of the Romans' intentions and mustered all available warships, 350, off the south coast of Sicily to intercept them. With a combined total of about 680 warships carrying up to 290,000 crew and marines, the battle was arguably the single largest battle of ancient history, and was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved.[4][5][note 2]
When the fleets met, the Carthaginians took the initiative and the battle devolved into three separate conflicts, where the Carthaginians hoped that their superior ship-handling skills would win the day. After a prolonged and confusing day of fighting, the Carthaginians were decisively defeated, losing 30 ships sunk and 64 captured to Roman losses of 24 ships sunk.
Sources
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War[note 3] is the historian Polybius (c. 200 – c. 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now lost manual on military tactics,[8] but he is best known for The Histories, written sometime after 167 BC, or about a century after the Battle of Ecnomus.[9][10] Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral—between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.[11][12]
Most Carthaginian written records were
Background
Operations in Sicily
In 264 BC, the states of Carthage and Rome went to war, starting the First Punic War.[23] Carthage was a well-established maritime power in the Western Mediterranean; Rome had recently unified mainland Italy south of the Po under its control. The immediate cause of the war was control of the Sicilian town of Messana (modern Messina). More broadly both sides wished to control Syracuse, the most powerful city-state on Sicily.[24] By 256 BC, the war had grown into a struggle in which the Romans were attempting to defeat decisively the Carthaginians and, at a minimum, control the whole of Sicily.[25]
The Carthaginians were engaging in their traditional policy of waiting for their opponents to wear themselves out, in the expectation of then regaining some or all of their possessions and negotiating a mutually satisfactory peace treaty.[26] The Romans were essentially a land-based power and had gained control of most of Sicily. The war there had reached a stalemate, as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere.[27][28] The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had relied on small squadrons provided by their allies.[29][30]
Ships
During this period the standard warship of the Carthaginian navy was the
The generally accepted theory regarding the arrangement of oarsmen in quinqueremes is that there would be sets – or files – of three oars, one above the other, with two oarsmen on each of the two uppermost oars and one on the lower, for a total of five oarsmen per file. This would be repeated down the side of a galley for a total of 28 files on each side; 168 oars in total.
In 260 BC Romans set out to construct a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes.
Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute the more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.
Largely because of the Romans' use of the corvus, the Carthaginians were defeated in large naval battles at
Prelude
The Carthaginian fleet mustered at Carthage in the late spring of 256 BC, before sailing for
The Romans mustered at about the same time, probably at
In total the Roman fleet had 140,000 men on board: rowers, other crew, marines and soldiers.[2] The number of Carthaginians is less certainly known but was estimated by Polybius at 150,000, and most modern historians broadly support this. If these figures are approximately correct, then the Battle of Ecnomus is possibly the largest naval battle of all time, by the number of combatants involved.[6][4][58]
Rather than sail directly from Phintias for North Africa, the Romans sailed west, intending to cross the Strait of Sicily at its narrowest point. This would minimise the time the fleet spent in the open sea; ships of the time, especially the less seaworthy galleys, kept in sight of land whenever possible.[59] The Carthaginians were aware of the Roman intentions and correctly anticipated their route. They intercepted the Roman fleet to the east of Heraclea Minoa, after it had left Licata. The fleets are commonly stated to have met off Cape Ecnomus, immediately after the Romans left Licata.[60] However, this is not supported by Polybius, or any other primary source; it is a modern convention.[61] The medieval historian Joannes Zonaras cites Dio Cassius to locate the battle immediately to the east of Heraclea Minoa.[61]
Battle
The Roman fleet moved along the Sicilian coast in a compact formation. They were deployed in four squadrons, of unequal size. The first two squadrons (I and II) led the way, each arrayed in echelon, together forming a wedge. The squadron on the right was under Vulso and the squadron on the left under Regulus. The consuls' hexaremes sailed alongside each other, at the "point" of the wedge. The third squadron (III) was immediately behind them, towing the transports. The fourth (IV) was in line abreast, protecting the rear. The Carthaginians sailed east, expecting to encounter the Roman fleet, and were possibly warned of its approach by small scout-ships.[62] They were organised in three unequally-sized squadrons, arranged in a single line abreast with their left, landward, wing (1) advanced. The Carthaginian centre (2) was commanded by Hamilcar and their right (3) by Hanno. The fleets sighted each other and both advanced.[63]
As the two leading Roman squadrons, their first and second, made for the middle of the Carthaginian line, Hamilcar staged a feigned retreat with his centre, the Carthaginian second squadron, probably by rowing in reverse, and the consuls pursued. The Roman third squadron, towing the transports, fell behind and a gap opened between the two leading and the two rear Roman squadrons. Both Carthaginian wings advanced on the two rearmost squadrons, by-passing the Roman centre and attempting to attack from the flanks to avoid the corvus boarding mechanism. The Carthaginian landward squadron, the first, attacked the Roman warships towing transports, the Roman third squadron, which had been exposed by the advance of their centre. The Romans cast off their tows to be able to manoeuvre. Hanno's force, to seaward, the Carthaginian third squadron, was composed of the fastest and most manoeuvrable Carthaginian ships and attacked the Roman squadron at the rear of their fleet, their fourth; which was being impeded by the now-drifting transports. Having separated the Roman centre from the two rearmost squadrons, Hamilcar and his ships of the Carthaginian second squadron turned to fight the pursuing Romans. The battle thus devolved into three separate fights.[64][65]
Modern and ancient historians have both suggested that Hamilcar's retreat was intended to specifically bring this situation about: to break up the compact Roman formation and allow the Carthaginians to use their greater tactical skill to outmanoeuvre the threat of the corvi and ram the Roman ships in their sides or rears. At the time of Ecnomus neither the speed nor manoeuvrability of the Roman ships, nor the skills of their crews, were up to the standards of the Carthaginians.[66][67] The Romans had become more skilled over the four years since they first built their navy, while the recent large increase in the size of the Carthaginian navy meant many of their crews had little experience. Consequently, the superiority in their ships' manoeuvrability and their crews' seamanship was less than they thought. Furthermore, the solidly built Roman ships were less susceptible to the effect of a successful ramming attack than the Carthaginians had anticipated. The three fights became shapeless brawls,[65] where superior ship handling counted for little. On the other hand, when the Romans were able to employ their corvi and board, they had the advantage of the experienced and heavily armoured legionaries they had embarked to transport to Africa.[44][46]
The commanders of the Roman third squadron, which had been towing the transports, felt outmatched and retreated to the shore. Despite having started the battle echeloned forward from their main fleet, their opponents, the ships of the Carthaginian first squadron, were unable to cut them off from the coast. Once there, the Roman third squadron took up a defensive position: they halted in shallow water, facing away from land, so that the Carthaginians could only attack their flanks with difficulty, and had to face the Romans' corvi if they attacked from the front. In spite of this, this fight was the one where the Romans were most hard-pressed. The rearmost Roman squadron was also outfought by the Carthaginian's third squadron. It put up a stout resistance, but its situation became desperate.[65]
The battle was decided in the fight between the two fleets' centres – the Roman first and second squadrons fighting the Carthaginian second squadron. Several Roman ships were rammed and sunk, as were several Carthaginian. More Carthaginian ships were boarded and captured. After a long fight the crews of the surviving ships of the Carthaginian centre lost heart and fled.[65] The Roman centre broke off its pursuit in response to the consuls' signals, and rowed back to assist their two rear squadrons, and to rescue the drifting transports. Vulso's first squadron attacked the Carthaginian first squadron. Regulus' second squadron launched an attack against Hanno's third squadron. He approached the Carthaginians from their disengaged side, threatening to trap them against the Roman fourth squadron which they were already fighting. Hanno withdrew with those ships of the Carthaginian third squadron that were able to extricate themselves.[68] Regulus and his Roman second squadron then moved to reinforce Vulso's attack with the Roman first squadron on the last Carthaginian squadron still fighting, the first, which was now surrounded. This was when the Carthaginians suffered their heaviest losses; 50 of their ships, trapped against the shore and heavily outnumbered, surrendered.[69] After a prolonged and confused day of fighting the Carthaginians had been decisively defeated, losing 30 ships sunk and 64 captured to Roman losses of 24 ships sunk.[70] The Carthaginians lost between 30,000 and 40,000 men, the majority captured; Roman casualties were approximately 10,000 killed.[71]
Aftermath
Following the battle, the Romans landed in Sicily for repairs, to rest the crews, and to reorganise their forces. The
Regulus' invasion initially went well and in 255 BC the Carthaginians
The war eventually ended in 241 BC with a Roman victory at the
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
- ^ He was known as Hanno the Great, the second (of three) Carthaginians named Hanno to be awarded that sobriquet.[3]
- ^ Many historians have not accepted the numbers Polybius gives for the fleets. At this distance we cannot know if Polybius's figures are correct, so the best approach is to broadly accept them.[6]
- ^ The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[7]
- ^ Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".[21]
Citations
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 85.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 86.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, p. 15; p.15, n. 1.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 87.
- ^ Mills, Eric (2020). "The Great Sea's Greatest Battle". U.S. Naval Institute. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
- ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Sidwell & Jones 1998, p. 16.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 53.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 20.
- ^ a b Tipps 1985, p. 432.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi.
- ^ Hau 2016, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 23.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 55.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000, p. 21.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi, 82–84.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2000, p. 98.
- ^ Mineo 2015, pp. 111–127.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 23, 98.
- ^ Warmington 1993, p. 168.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 129.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 130.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000, p. 97.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 91–92, 97.
- ^ Coates 2004, p. 138.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 101.
- ^ a b c d Tipps 1985, p. 434.
- ^ a b Murray 2011, p. 69.
- ^ Casson 1995, p. 101.
- ^ de Souza 2008, p. 358.
- ^ Meijer 1986, p. 120.
- ^ Coates 2004, pp. 137–138.
- ^ Morrison & Coates 1996, pp. 259–260, 270.
- ^ Coates 2004, pp. 129–130, 138–139.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 104.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 100.
- ^ a b c Tipps 1985, p. 435.
- ^ a b Casson 1995, p. 121.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Casson 1995, pp. 278–280.
- ^ Curry 2012, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Wallinga 1956, pp. 77–90.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 100–101, 103.
- ^ a b Rankov 2015, p. 155.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, p. 110.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 83.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 435–446.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 83, 86.
- ^ Walbank 1959, p. 10.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 436.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 445.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 446.
- ^ a b Rankov 2015, p. 156.
- ^ Tipps 1985, p. 452, n.68.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 111–112.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 112–113.
- ^ a b c d Tipps 1985, p. 459.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 110, 112.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 453, 460.
- ^ Rodgers 1937, p. 288.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 459–460.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 69.
- ^ Rodgers 1937, p. 282.
- ^ Dart & Vervaet 2011, p. 271.
- ^ Rankov 2015, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 87–90.
- ^ a b Tipps 1985, p. 438.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 189.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. 112, 117.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2000, pp. 128–129, 357, 359–360.
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- ISBN 978-0-85177-955-3.
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External links