Battle of Grunwald

Coordinates: 53°29′10″N 20°07′29″E / 53.48611°N 20.12472°E / 53.48611; 20.12472
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For other uses, see Battle of Grunwald (disambiguation).

Battle of Grunwald
Part of the
Grunwald (Grünfelde) and Łodwigowo (Ludwigsdorf), western Masuria, Poland
53°29′10″N 20°07′29″E / 53.48611°N 20.12472°E / 53.48611; 20.12472
Result Polish–Lithuanian victory
Belligerents

Vassals, allies and mercenaries:

Teutonic Order

Vassals, allies and mercenaries:

Commanders and leaders
Strength 16,000–39,000 men[6] 11,000–27,000 men[6]Casualties and losses Unknown; see Casualties and captives 203–211 out of 270 brothers killed[7]
See Casualties and captives
Battle of Grunwald is located in Poland
Battle of Grunwald
class=notpageimage|
Battle site on a map of modern Poland

The Battle of Grunwald, Battle of Žalgiris, or First Battle of Tannenberg, was fought on 15 July 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The alliance of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila), and Grand Duke Vytautas, decisively defeated the German Teutonic Order, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Order's leadership were killed or taken prisoner.

Although defeated, the Teutonic Order withstood the subsequent siege of the Malbork Castle and suffered minimal territorial losses at the Peace of Thorn (1411), with other territorial disputes continuing until the Treaty of Melno in 1422. The order, however, never recovered their former power, and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in the lands controlled by them. The battle shifted the balance of power in Central and Eastern Europe and marked the rise of the Polish–Lithuanian union as the dominant regional political and military force.[8]

The battle was one of the largest in

Soviet propaganda campaigns. Only in recent decades have historians moved towards a dispassionate, scholarly assessment of the battle, reconciling the previous narratives, which differed widely by nation.[11]

Names and sources

Names

The most important source about the battle is Cronica conflictus...[12]

Traditionally, the battle's location was thought to be in the territory of the

Grunwald) to the west, Tannenberg (Stębark) to the northeast and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo, Ludwikowice) to the south. However, research by Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl [de] and archaeological excavations in 2014–2017 proved that the actual site was south of Grünfelde (Grunwald).[13] Władysław II Jagiełło referred to the site in Latin as in loco conflictus nostri, quem cum Cruciferis de Prusia habuimus, dicto Grunenvelt.[8] Later, Polish chroniclers interpreted the word Grunenvelt ("green field" in Low German) as Grünwald, meaning "green forest" in German. The Lithuanians followed suit and translated the name as Žalgiris.[14] The name Žalgiris was first used by Maironis in 1891.[15] The Germans named the battle after Tannenberg ("fir hill" or "pine hill" in German).[16] Thus, there are three commonly used names for the battle: German: Schlacht bei Tannenberg, Polish: bitwa pod Grunwaldem, Lithuanian: Žalgirio mūšis. Its names in the languages of other involved peoples include Belarusian: Бітва пад Грунвальдам, Ukrainian: Грюнвальдська битва, Russian: Грюнвальдская битва, Czech: Bitva u Grunvaldu, Romanian
: Bătălia de la Grünwald.

Sources

There are few contemporary, reliable sources about the battle, and most were produced by the Polish. The most important and trustworthy source is Cronica conflictus Wladislai regis Poloniae cum Cruciferis anno Christi 1410, which was written within a year of the battle by an eyewitness.

Bishop of Poznań Wojciech Jastrzębiec and letters sent by Jastrzębiec to Poles in the Holy See.[18] German sources include a concise account in the chronicle of Johann von Posilge. An anonymous letter, discovered in 1963 and written between 1411 and 1413, provided important details on Lithuanian maneuvers.[20][21]

Historical background

Lithuanian Crusade and Polish–Lithuanian union

The Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania within their vassals between 1386 and 1434
Main article: Lithuanian Crusade

In 1230, the

Lithuanian Civil War (1381–84) in the Treaty of Dubysa.[22][page needed
]

In 1385, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania agreed to marry Queen

Danzig), but the two states had been largely at peace since the Treaty of Kalisz (1343).[24] The conflict was also motivated by trade considerations: the order controlled the lower reaches of the three largest rivers (the Neman, Vistula and Daugava) in Poland and Lithuania.[25]

War, truce and preparations

Territory of the State of the Teutonic Order between 1260 and 1410; the locations and dates of major battles, including the Battle of Grunwald, are indicated by crossed red swords.
bas-relief from the Malbork Castle
)

In May 1409, an uprising in Teutonic-held Samogitia started. Lithuania supported it and the order threatened to invade. Poland announced its support for the Lithuanian cause and threatened to invade Prussia in return. As Prussian troops evacuated Samogitia, Teutonic Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen declared war on the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on 6 August 1409.[26] The order hoped to defeat Poland and Lithuania separately, and began by invading Greater Poland and Kuyavia, catching the Poles by surprise.[27] The order burned the castle at Dobrin (Dobrzyń nad Wisłą), captured Bobrowniki after a 14-day siege, conquered Bydgoszcz (Bromberg) and sacked several towns.[28] The Poles organized counterattacks and recaptured Bydgoszcz.[29] The Samogitians attacked Memel (Klaipėda).[27] However, neither side was ready for a full-scale war.

Principality of Moldavia, for mutual military assistance.[31] Sigismund attempted to break the Polish–Lithuanian alliance by offering Vytautas a king's crown; Vytautas' acceptance would have violated the terms of the Ostrów Agreement and created Polish-Lithuanian discord.[32] At the same time, Vytautas managed to obtain a truce from the Livonian Order.[33]

By December 1409, Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas had agreed on a common strategy: their armies would unite into a single massive force and march together towards Marienburg (

Neman).[1] To counter this perceived threat, Ulrich von Jungingen concentrated his forces in Schwetz (Świecie), a central location from where troops could respond to an invasion from any direction rather quickly.[35] Sizable garrisons were left in the eastern castles of Ragnit, Rhein (Ryn) near Lötzen (Giżycko) and Memel (Klaipėda).[1] To keep their plans secret and mislead the order, Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas organized several raids into border territories, thus forcing the order to keep their troops in place.[34]

Opposing forces

Further information: List of banners in the Battle of Grunwald
Various estimates of opposing forces[6]
Historian Polish Lithuanian Teutonic
Karl Heveker and
Hans Delbrück[36]		 10,500 6,000 11,000
Eugene Razin[37] 16,000–17,000 11,000
Max Oehler 23,000 15,000
Jerzy Ochmański 22,000–27,000 12,000
Sven Ekdahl[36] 20,000–25,000 12,000–15,000
Andrzej Nadolski 20,000 10,000 15,000
Jan Dąbrowski
 15,000–18,000 8,000–11,000 19,000
Zigmantas Kiaupa[38] 18,000 11,000 15,000–21,000
Marian Biskup 19,000–20,000 10,000–11,000 21,000
Daniel Stone[23] 27,000 11,000 21,000
Stefan Kuczyński 39,000 27,000
James Westfall Thompson and
Edgar Nathaniel Johnson[39] 		100,000 35,000
Alfred Nicolas Rambaud[40] 163,000 86,000

The precise number of soldiers involved has proven difficult to establish.

pikemen, archers, crossbowmen) and artillery units is unknown. Estimates, often biased by political and nationalistic considerations, were produced by various historians.[41] German historians tend to present lower numbers, while Polish historians tend to use higher estimates.[6] The high-end estimates by Polish historian Stefan Kuczyński of 39,000 Polish–Lithuanian and 27,000 Teutonic men[42] have been cited in Western literature as "commonly accepted".[5][10][41]

While outnumbered, the Teutonic army had advantages in discipline, military training and equipment.

projectiles.[37]

Both armies were composed of troops from several states and lands, including numerous mercenaries, primarily from

Oels, who was supported by knights from the Silesian nobility including Dietrich von Kottulin and Hans von Motschelnitz.[44]

Soldiers from twenty-two different states and regions, mostly Germanic, joined the Order's army.

Sigismund of Hungary was disappointing.[33]

Poland brought mercenaries from

Zbigniew of Brzezia
commanded the Polish troops in the field.


Course of the battle

Map of army movements in the Grunwald campaign

March into Prussia

The first stage of the Grunwald campaign was the gathering of all Polish–Lithuanian troops at

Janusz I joined the Polish–Lithuanian army.[1] The massive force began its march north towards Marienburg (Malbork), capital of Prussia, on 3 July. The Prussian border was crossed on 9 July.[52]

The river crossing remained secret until Hungarian envoys, who were attempting to negotiate a peace, informed the Grand Master.

war council,[51] Władysław II Jagiełło decided against crossing the river at such a strong, defensible position. The army would instead bypass the river crossing by turning east, towards its sources, where no other major rivers separated his army from Marienburg.[55] The march continued east towards Soldau (Działdowo), although no attempt was made to capture the town.[57] The Teutonic army followed the Drewenz River north, crossed it near Löbau (Lubawa) and then moved east in parallel with the Polish–Lithuanian army. According to the Order's propaganda, the latter ravaged the village of Gilgenburg (Dąbrówno).[58] Later, in the self-serving testimonies of the survivors before the Pope, the order claimed that Von Jungingen was so enraged by the alleged atrocities that he swore to defeat the invaders in battle.[59]

Battle preparations

See also: Grunwald Swords
Teutonic Order presents Grunwald Swords as gift to King Władysław II Jagiełło (painting by Wojciech Kossak)

In the early morning of 15 July, both armies met in an area covering approximately 4 km2 (1.5 sq mi) between the villages of

Grunwald, Tannenberg (Stębark) and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo).[60] The armies formed opposing lines along a northeast–southwest axis. The Polish–Lithuanian army was positioned in front and east of Ludwigsdorf and Tannenberg.[61] Polish heavy cavalry formed the left flank, Lithuanian light cavalry the right flank and various mercenary troops made up the center. Their men were organized in three lines of wedge-shaped formations about 20 men deep.[61] The Teutonic forces concentrated their elite heavy cavalry, commanded by Grand Marshal Frederic von Wallenrode, against the Lithuanians.[60] The order, which was the first to organize their army for the battle, hoped to provoke the Poles or Lithuanians into attacking first. Their troops, wearing heavy armor, had to stand in the scorching sun for several hours waiting for an attack.[62] One chronicle suggested that they had dug pits that an attacking army would fall into.[63] They also attempted to use field artillery, but a light rain dampened their powder and only two cannon shots were fired.[62] As Władysław II Jagiełło delayed, the Grand Master sent messengers with two swords to "assist Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas in battle". The swords were meant as an insult and a provocation.[64] Known as the "Grunwald Swords
", they became one of the national symbols of Poland.

Battle begins: Lithuanian attack and retreat maneuver

  • Retreat of Lithuanian light cavalry (battle location and initial army positions according to an 1836 map by Johannes Voigt and contradicted by archaeological excavations in 2014–2017)[65]
    Retreat of Lithuanian light cavalry (battle location and initial army positions according to an 1836 map by Johannes Voigt and contradicted by archaeological excavations in 2014–2017)[65]
  • Right-flank Polish–Lithuanian assault
    Right-flank Polish–Lithuanian assault
  • Polish heavy-cavalry breakthrough
    Polish heavy-cavalry breakthrough

Vytautas, supported by the Polish banners, started an assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces.[62] After more than an hour of heavy fighting, the Lithuanian light cavalry began a full retreat. Jan Długosz described this development as a complete annihilation of the entire Lithuanian army. According to Długosz, the Order assumed that victory was theirs, broke their formation for a disorganized pursuit of the retreating Lithuanians, and gathered much loot before returning to the battlefield to face the Polish troops.[66] He made no mention of the Lithuanians, who later returned to the battlefield. Thus Długosz portrayed the battle as a single-handed Polish victory.[66] This view contradicted Cronica conflictus and has been challenged by modern historians.

Starting with an article by

Vaclaw Lastowski in 1909, they proposed that the retreat had been a planned maneuver borrowed from the Golden Horde.[67] A feigned retreat had been used in the Battle of the Vorskla River (1399), when the Lithuanian army had been dealt a crushing defeat and Vytautas himself had barely escaped alive.[68] This theory gained wider acceptance after the discovery and publication, in 1963 by Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl [de], of a German letter.[69][70] Written a few years after the battle, it cautioned the new Grand Master to look out for feigned retreats of the kind that had been used in the Great Battle.[21] Stephen Turnbull asserts that the Lithuanian tactical retreat did not quite fit the formula of a feigned retreat; such a retreat was usually staged by one or two units (as opposed to almost an entire army) and was swiftly followed by a counterattack (whereas the Lithuanians had returned late in the battle).[71]

Battle continues: Polish–Teutonic fight

Muslim Tatar fights a Teutonic knight (detail from a painting by Wojciech Kossak)

While the Lithuanians were retreating, heavy fighting broke out between Polish and Teutonic forces. Commanded by Grand Komtur Kuno von Lichtenstein, the Teutonic forces concentrated on the Polish right flank. Six of von Walenrode's banners did not pursue the retreating Lithuanians, instead joining the attack on the right flank.[38] A particularly valuable target was the royal banner of Kraków. It seemed that the order were gaining the upper hand, and at one point the royal standard-bearer, Marcin of Wrocimowice, lost the Kraków banner.[72] However, it was soon recaptured and fighting continued. Władysław II Jagiełło deployed his reserves—the second line of his army.[38] Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen then personally led 16 banners, almost a third of the original Teutonic strength, to the right Polish flank,[73] and Władysław II Jagiełło deployed his last reserves, the third line of his army.[38] The melee reached the Polish command and one knight, identified as Lupold or Diepold of Kökeritz, charged directly against King Władysław II Jagiełło.[74] Władysław's secretary, Zbigniew Oleśnicki, saved the king's life, gaining royal favor and becoming one of the most influential people in Poland.[23]

Battle ends: Teutonic Order defeated

Alfons Mucha, The Slav Epic

At that time the reorganized Lithuanians returned to the battle, attacking von Jungingen from the rear.[75] The Teutonic forces were by then becoming outnumbered by the mass of Polish knights and advancing Lithuanian cavalry. As von Jungingen attempted to break through the Lithuanian lines, he was killed.[75] According to Cronica conflictus, Dobiesław of Oleśnica thrust a lance through the Grand Master's neck,[75] while Długosz presented Mszczuj of Skrzynno as the killer. Surrounded and leaderless, the Teutonic Order began to retreat. Part of the routed units retreated towards their camp. This move backfired when the camp followers turned against their masters and joined the manhunt.[76] The knights attempted to build a wagon fort: the camp was surrounded by wagons serving as an improvised fortification.[76] However, the defense was soon broken and the camp was ravaged. According to Cronica conflictus, more knights died there than on the battlefield.[76] The battle lasted for about ten hours.[38]

The Teutonic Order attributed the defeat to treason on the part of

German historiography of the battle until 1945.[77]

Aftermath

Casualties and captives

Diebold Schilling

A note sent in August by envoys of King Sigismund of Hungary, Nicholas II Garai and Stibor of Stiboricz, put total casualties at 8,000 dead "on both sides".[79] However, the wording is vague and it is unclear whether it meant a total of 8,000 or 16,000 dead.[80] A papal bull from 1412 mentioned 18,000 dead Christians.[79] In two letters written immediately after the battle, Władysław II Jagiełło mentioned that Polish casualties were small (paucis valde and modico) and Jan Długosz listed only 12 Polish knights who had been killed.[79] A letter by a Teutonic official from Tapiau (Gvardeysk) mentioned that only half of the Lithuanians returned, but it is unclear how many of those casualties are attributable to the battle and how many to the later siege of Marienburg.[79]

The defeat of the Teutonic Order was resounding. According to Teutonic payroll records, only 1,427 men reported back to Marienburg to claim their pay.

Sambia, were executed by order of Vytautas after the battle.[81] The bodies of von Jungingen and other high-ranking officials were transported to Marienburg Castle for burial on 19 July.[83] The bodies of lower-ranking Teutonic officials and 12 Polish knights were buried at the church in Tannenberg.[83] The rest of the dead were buried in several mass graves. The highest-ranking Teutonic official to escape the battle was Werner von Tettinger, Komtur of Elbing (Elbląg).[81]

Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Among these were Dukes Konrad VII of Oels (Oleśnica) and Casimir V of Pomerania.[84] Most of the commoners and mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on condition that they report to Kraków on 11 November 1410.[85] Only those who were expected to pay ransom were kept. Considerable ransoms were recorded; for example, the mercenary Holbracht von Loym had to pay 150 kopas of Prague groschen, amounting to more than 30 kg (66 lb) of silver.[86]

Further campaign and peace

Main articles: Siege of Marienburg (1410) and Peace of Thorn (1411)
After the battle, the Malbork Castle, which served as the Teutonic capital, was unsuccessfully besieged for two months by the Polish–Lithuanian forces

After the battle, the Polish and Lithuanian forces delayed their attack on the Teutonic capital in Marienburg (

Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, and the Livonian Order promised financial aid and reinforcements.[92]

The siege of Marienburg was lifted on 19 September. The Polish–Lithuanian forces left garrisons in the fortresses they had taken and returned home. However, the order quickly recaptured most of the castles. By the end of October only four Teutonic castles along the border remained in Polish hands.[93] Władysław II Jagiełło raised a fresh army and dealt another defeat to the order in the Battle of Koronowo on 10 October 1410. Following other brief engagements, both sides agreed to negotiate.

The

Thirteen Years' War (1454).[98]

Battlefield memorials

Memorials at the battlefield built in 1960
Ruins of the Chapel of St. Mary

Ideas about commemorating the battle rose right after the event. Władysław II Jagiełło wanted to build a monastery dedicated to Saint

Protestant Reformation and was demolished in 1720.[101][102] Over time, the location of the chapel became associated with the location where Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen was killed. In 1901, a large memorial stone was erected for the fallen Grand Master in the midst of the chapel ruins for the 200th anniversary of the coronation of King Frederick I of Prussia. The inscription was chiseled in 1960 and the stone was removed from the chapel ruins and placed inscription facing down in 1984.[103]

In 1960, for the 550th anniversary, a museum and monuments were constructed a little northeast of the chapel ruins.

Historical Monuments, as designated on 4 October 2010, and tracked by the National Institute of Cultural Heritage. The museum, which is open during summers, has an exhibition space of 275 square metres (2,960 sq ft) in which it displays archaeological finds from the battlefield, original and reproduced medieval weapons, reconstructed flags from the battle, as well as various maps, drawings, and documents related to the battle.[105] In 2018, the museum was visited by about 140,000 people.[106] Construction of a larger year-round museum at an estimated cost of 30 million Polish złoty (6.5 million euros) started in April 2019.[107]

In July 2020, a large stone with engraved

Vytis was erected by the Lithuanians near the monument site to commemorate the 610th anniversary of the battle. The monument was unveiled by Lithuanian and Polish presidents Gitanas Nausėda and Andrzej Duda.[108]

Archaeological excavations

Traditional view of army movements and battlefield location according to descriptions by Jan Długosz and map first published by Johannes Voigt in 1836[13]
Proposed army movements and battlefield locations according to Sven Ekdahl[13]

Several artifacts from the battlefield are known from historical record, for example stone balls in the church of Stębark (Tannenberg) and a metal helmet with holes in the church of Mielno which was gifted to Frederick William IV of Prussia when he visited the battlefield in 1842, but they have not survived to the present day.[109][110] The first amateur archeological research was carried out in 1911 in hopes of finding the mass graves mentioned by Jan Długosz at the church of Stębark.[110] The church was surveyed with ground-penetrating radar in 2013 but little evidence of the mass graves was found.[111]

The first more thorough archaeological excavations of the battlefield were carried out in 1958–1960 in the run-up to the 550th anniversary, connected to the construction of the memorial site and museum. The government showed great interest in the excavations and sent helicopters and 160 soldiers to help.[110] Research continued in later decades, but yielded very little results with the exception of the area around the ruined chapel.[112][101] Several mass graves were found at the chapel: remains of six people in the vestibule, 30 people next to the southern wall, more than 130 people in three pits adjacent to the chapel, and about 90 people in the sacristy. Many remains showed signs of traumatic injuries. Some skeletons showed signs of being burned and moved.[110] Mass burials, including of women and children, were also found in the villages of Gilgenburg (Dąbrówno) and Faulen (Ulnowo). The massacre in Gilgenburg was known from written sources, but the burial in Faulen was unexpected.[110] In the fields, very few items of militaria were found. In 1958–1990, only 28 artefacts were found connected to the battle: ten crossbow bolts, five arrowheads, a javelin head, two sword pieces, two gun bullets, six pieces of gauntlets, and two small arms bullets.[110]

In 2009 Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl [de] published his long-held hypothesis that the traditionally accepted location of the battlefield was incorrect. He believed that the surveys near the chapel ruins were actually around the site of the Teutonic Order's camp. According to Ekdahl's theory, the main battlefield was located northeast of the road between Grunwald and Łodwigowo, about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) southwest of the memorial site.[113] Between 2014 and 2019, archaeologists from Scandinavia and Poland investigated an area of approximately 450 hectares (1,100 acres) with metal detectors and located the main battle site according to Ekdahl's predictions.[114] In 2017, the team found approximately 65 crossbow bolts and 20 arrowheads, as well as parts of spurs, stirrups, gauntlets, etc.[115] As of 2020, archaeologists had discovered about 1,500 artifacts of which about 150 are linked to the battle. Among them are a Teutonic clasp to fasten coat with the Gothic inscription ‘Ave Maria’, a seal with the image of a pelican feeding its young with blood, two well preserved axes, and Teutonic coins.[116]

The 2014-2019 surveys have been criticsed due to inconsistent publications and not following scientific techniques established by battlefield archeology. These include preservation of findings, lack of survey maps and inconsistent recording of GPS data. There has also been a lack of funding from the Polish government for reliable research of the entire battlefield. [117]

Legacy

1st Infantry Regiment of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas during commemoration of the battle of Žalgiris in Ukmergė
on 15 July 1930.

In William Urban's summary, almost all accounts of the battle made before the 1960s were more influenced by romantic legends and nationalistic propaganda than by fact.[77] Historians have since made progress towards dispassionate scholarship and reconciliation of the various national accounts of the battle.[11]

Grunwald Monument was erected in Kraków, Poland for the battle's 500th anniversary. It was destroyed during World War II by the Germans and rebuilt in 1976.

Poland and Lithuania

The Battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important in the histories of Poland and Lithuania.

Germanization and Russification policies of the German and Russian Empires. The Teutonic Order was portrayed as bloodthirsty invaders and Grunwald as a just victory achieved by a small, oppressed nation.[10]

In 1910, to mark the 500th anniversary of the battle, a monument by Antoni Wiwulski was unveiled in Kraków during a three-day celebration attended by some 150,000 people.[118] About 60 other towns and villages in Galicia also erected Grunwald monuments for the anniversary.[119] About the same time, Nobel Prize-winner Henryk Sienkiewicz wrote the novel The Knights of the Cross (Polish: Krzyżacy), prominently featuring the battle in one of the chapters. In 1960, Polish filmmaker Aleksander Ford used the book as the basis for his film, Knights of the Teutonic Order. At the 1939 New York World's Fair, Poland exhibited the King Jagiello Monument which commemorated the battle and was later installed in the Central Park, New York City.[120] The battle has lent its name to military decorations (Order of the Cross of Grunwald), sports teams (BC Žalgiris, FK Žalgiris), and various organizations. 72 streets in Lithuania are named after the battle.[121]

A re-enactor dressed as King Władysław II Jagiełło (left) during the annual recreation of the battle in 2003

An annual battle re-enactment takes place on 15 July. In 2010, a pageant reenacting the event and commemorating the battle's 600th anniversary was held. It attracted 200,000 spectators who watched 2,200 participants playing the role of knights in a re-enactment of the battle. An additional 3,800 participants played peasants and camp followers. The pageant's organisers believe that the event has become the largest re-enactment of medieval combat in Europe.[122] The reenactment attracts about 60,000 to 80,000 visitors annually.[123]

Belarusian stamp for the 600th anniversary of the battle

The battle is also commemorated in Ukraine and Belarus. In 2010, the

hryvnia commemorated to the 600 anniversary of the battle. At least three cities in Ukraine (Lviv, Drohobych, and Ivano-Frankivsk) have a street named after the battle.[124][125] In Belarus, interest in the battle began to grow in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[126] In 2010, Belarus issued postage stamps for the 600th anniversary.[127] Since 2008, Our Grunwald Festival is hosted by a private museum of medieval culture near Minsk and includes battle reenactment.[128]

A German National People's Party propaganda poster from 1920 depicts a Teutonic knight threatened by a Pole and a socialist

Germany and Russia

Germans generally saw the Teutonic knights as heroic and noble men who brought Christianity and civilization to the east, although many came to the region with more material motives.[10] In August 1914, during World War I, Germany won a battle against Russia near the site. When the Germans realized its propaganda potential, they named the battle the Battle of Tannenberg,[129] despite it having actually taken place much closer to Allenstein (Olsztyn), and framed it as revenge for the Polish–Lithuanian victory 504 years earlier. To cement this symbolism, Germany built the Tannenberg Memorial, which became the tomb of the national hero Paul von Hindenburg.[130]

Nazi Germany later exploited the sentiment by portraying their Lebensraum policies as a continuation of the order's historical mission.[11] For example, SS Chief Heinrich Himmler told Nazi Germany's leader Adolf Hitler on the first day of the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944: "After five, six weeks we shall leave. But by then Warsaw, the capital, the head, the intelligence of this former 16–17 million Polish people will be extinguished, this Volk that has blocked our way to the east for 700 years and has stood in our way ever since the First Battle of Tannenberg."[131][132]

Due to the participation of the three

Germanics.[134] The Teutonic Order was portrayed as the medieval forerunners of Hitler's armies, while the battle itself was seen as the medieval counterpart to the Battle of Stalingrad.[10][134]

In 2014, the Russian Military Historical Society stated that Russian troops and their allies defeated the German knights in the Battle of Grunwald,

Grand Duchy of Moscow was involved with this battle is lacking. In July 2017, billboards appeared on the streets of Russian cities with statements that seemed to attribute the victory in the battle of Grunwald to Russia.[136]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Jučas 2009, p. 75.
  2. ^ a b Urban 2003, p. 138.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Turnbull 2003, p. 26.
  4. ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 28.
  5. ^ a b Davies 2005, p. 98.
  6. ^ a b c d Jučas 2009, pp. 57–58.
  7. ^ a b Frost 2015, pp. 106–107.
  8. ^ a b Ekdahl 2008, p. 175.
  9. ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 92.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Johnson 1996, p. 43.
  11. ^ a b c Johnson 1996, p. 44.
  12. ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 8.
  13. ^ a b c Ekdahl 2018.
  14. ^ Sužiedėlis 2011, p. 123.
  15. ^ Balčiūnas 2020.
  16. ^ Evans 1970, p. 3.
  17. ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 9.
  18. ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 10.
  19. ^ Długosz, Jan (1448). Banderia Prutenorum (in Latin). Jagiellonian Digital Library. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
  20. ^ Jučas 2009, p. 11.
  21. ^ a b Ekdahl 1963.
  22. ^ Kiaupa, Kiaupienė & Kuncevičius 2000.
  23. ^ a b c d Stone 2001, p. 16.
  24. ^ Urban 2003, p. 132.
  25. ^ Kiaupa, Kiaupienė & Kuncevičius 2000, p. 137.
  26. ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 20.
  27. ^ a b Ivinskis 1978, p. 336.
  28. ^ Urban 2003, p. 130.
  29. ^ Kuczynski 1960, p. 614.
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Bibliography

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