Battle of Megiddo (1918)
Battle of Megiddo | |
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Part of the Vilayet of Beirut 32°24′00″N 34°52′59″E / 32.400°N 34.883°E | |
Result | Allied victory |
France
- Edmund Allenby)
(Egyptian Expeditionary Force - Edward Bulfin
(XX Corps) - Philip Chetwode)
(XXI Corps - Harry Chauvel
(Desert Mounted Corps) - Faisal bin Hussein
(Sharifian Army)
- Yıldırım Army Group)
- Cevat Pasha
(Eighth Army) - Mustafa Kemal Pasha
(Seventh Army) - Cemal Pasha
(Fourth Army)
- Allied
- 57,000 infantry
- 12,000 mounted troops
- 540 guns[1]
- Arab
- 4,000+ regulars
- unknown no. irregulars
- 32,000 infantry
- 3,000 mounted troops
- 402 guns[1]
- 782 killed
- 382 missing
- 4,179 wounded
- Destruction or surrender of Ottoman forces
- Only 6,000 escaped capture[2]
The Battle of Megiddo
The battle was the final Allied offensive of the
These battles resulted in many tens of thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory being captured by the Allies. Following the battles, Daraa was captured on 27 September, Damascus on 1 October and operations at Haritan, north of Aleppo, were still in progress when the Armistice of Mudros was signed ending hostilities between the Allies and Ottomans.
The operations of General
Background
The ancient fortress of
Allied situation
The Entente Powers had declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. In early 1915 and in August 1916 the Ottomans, with German commanders, aid and encouragement, had attacked the Suez Canal, a vital link between Britain and India, Australia and New Zealand. Under General Archibald Murray, the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) stopped the Ottoman army at the Battle of Romani and drove them back to Magdhaba and across the Sinai to Rafa to reoccupy Egyptian territory and secure the safety of the Suez Canal. Having constructed a railway and water pipeline across the desert, Murray then attacked southern Palestine. In the First Battle of Gaza and the Second Battle of Gaza in March and April 1917, the British attacks were defeated.
In 1916, the
General Allenby had been appointed to succeed Murray in command of the EEF, and was encouraged to renew the offensive. After receiving reinforcements, he broke through the Ottoman defences in the
After a pause of several weeks caused by bad weather and the need to repair his lines of communication, Allenby advanced eastward to
However, Allenby maintained pressure on the Ottoman armies by twice sending mounted and infantry divisions across the
Ottoman situation
At the same time (effectively from 8 March 1918), the Ottoman command changed.
Until late September 1918, the strategic situation of the Ottoman Empire appeared to be better than that of the other Central Powers. Their forces in Mesopotamia were holding their ground, while in the Caucasus they had captured Armenia, Azerbaijan and much of Georgia in an advance towards the Caspian Sea. Liman von Sanders was expected to repeat his defence of Gallipoli and defeat the British invasion in Palestine.[15]
However, some other commanders were worried about an assault on their extended front in Palestine. They wished to pull their troops back, so an attack would have to cross undefended ground and lose any tactical surprise. However, Liman would have had to abandon what seemed to be good defences and he decided that it was too late to pull back.[16]
Allied reorganisation
During the summer of 1918, Allenby's forces were built back up to full strength. Two
There was a comparative lull in activity while Allenby's divisions were reorganised and retrained, but some local attacks were made, especially in the Judean Hills. On 19 July, the Ottomans and Germans mounted a brief attack at
Arab Northern Army
As Allenby's reorganisation proceeded, the
The 2,000
Meanwhile, Arab irregulars raided the
I do not for one moment denigrate the good name of Lawrence, nor detract from his leadership in the 'Arab Revolt' in Arabia in harassing the Turks, blowing up trains, etc. but when it came to co–operation with Allenby's forces, the Arabs under Lawrence had in my experience, nuisance value only.
— Rex Hall 5th Light Horse Brigade[29]
Prelude
Allenby's plan
Allenby intended to break through the western end of the Ottoman line, where the terrain was favourable to cavalry operations. His horsemen would pass through the gap to seize objectives deep in the Ottoman rear areas and isolate their Seventh and Eighth Armies.[30]
As a preliminary move, the Arab Northern Army would attack the railway junction at Daraa beginning on 16 September, to interrupt the Ottoman lines of communication and distract the Yildirim headquarters.[31][21]
The two divisions of
The main breakthrough was to be achieved on the coast on 19 September by four infantry divisions of XXI Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin, massed on a front 8 miles (13 km) wide. The fifth division of XXI Corps (the 54th) was to make a subsidiary attack 5 miles (8.0 km) inland of the main breach.[13] Once the breakthrough was achieved, the corps, with the 5th Light Horse Brigade attached, would advance to capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army at Tulkarm and the lateral railway line by which the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were supplied, including the important railway junction at Messudieh.[31][33][35]
The strategic move was to be made by the Desert Mounted Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General
Finally, a detachment consisting of the
Entente deceptions
Secrecy was an essential part, as it had been at the Battle of Beersheba the preceding year. It was feared that the Ottomans could thwart the preparations for the attack by making a withdrawal in the coastal sector.[39] Laborious efforts were therefore made to prevent the Ottomans discerning Allenby's intentions and to persuade them that the next Entente attack would be made in the Jordan Valley. All westward movements of personnel and vehicles from the Jordan Valley towards the Mediterranean coast were made during the night while all movements eastwards were made during daytime. The detached Anzac Mounted Division in the Jordan Valley simulated the activity of the entire mounted corps. Troops marched openly down to the valley by day, and were secretly taken back by lorry at night to repeat the process the next day. Vehicles or mules dragged harrows along tracks to raise dust clouds, simulating other troop movements. Dummy camps and horse lines were constructed and a hotel in Jerusalem was ostentatiously commandeered for an Expeditionary Force headquarters.[13][40][41]
Meanwhile, the 2nd (British) Battalion of the Imperial Camel Corps joined Arab irregulars in a raid east of the Jordan. They first captured and destroyed the railway station at Mudawara, finally cutting the Hejaz Railway,[42] and then mounted a reconnaissance near Amman, scattering corned beef tins and documents as proof of their presence.[43] Lawrence sent agents to openly buy up huge quantities of forage in the same area.[13] As a final touch, British newspapers and messages were filled with reports of a race meeting to take place on 19 September, the day on which the attack was to be launched.[44]
Though Allenby's deceptions did not induce Liman to concentrate his forces against the River Jordan flank,[45] Allenby was nevertheless able to concentrate a force superior to the Ottoman XXII Corps by nearly five to one in infantry and even more in artillery on the Mediterranean flank, where the main attack was to be made, undetected by the Ottomans.[13] Earlier in the year (on 9 June), units of the 7th (Meerut) Division had captured two hills just inland from the coast, depriving the Ottomans of two important observation points overlooking the Allied bridgehead north of the Nahr-el-Auja.[46] Also, the Royal Engineers had established a bridging school on the Nahr-al-Auja much earlier in the year, so the sudden appearance of several bridges across it on the eve of the assault did not alert any other Ottoman observers.[47]
Entente air superiority
These various deceptions could not have been successful without the Entente forces' undisputed air supremacy west of the Jordan. The squadrons of the Royal Air Force and the Australian Flying Corps outnumbered and outclassed the Ottoman and German aircraft detachments in Palestine.[47] During the weeks before the September attack, enemy aerial activity dropped markedly. Although during one week in June hostile aeroplanes crossed the British front lines 100 times, mainly on the tip–and–run principle at altitudes of 16,000–18,000 feet (4,900–5,500 m), by the last week in August this number had dropped to 18 and during the three following weeks of September it was reduced to just four enemy aircraft. During the 18 days before the start of the battle, only two or three German aircraft were seen flying.[48] Eventually, Ottoman and German reconnaissance aircraft could not even take off without being engaged by British or Australian fighters,[13] and could therefore not see through Allenby's deceptions, nor spot the true Allied concentration which was concealed in orange groves and plantations.
Ottoman dispositions
Under the Yildirim Army Group were, from west to east: the
In August 1918, the Yildirim Army Group's front-line strength was 40,598 infantrymen armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns,[50][clarification needed] and 402 guns.[1]
Although the Ottomans had fairly accurately estimated the total Allied strength, Liman lacked intelligence on the Allied plans and dispositions and was forced to dispose his forces evenly along the entire length of his front. Moreover, almost his entire fighting strength was in the front line. The armies' only operational reserves were the two German regiments and the two understrength cavalry divisions. Further back there were no strategic reserves other than some "Depot Regiments", not organised as fighting units, and scattered garrisons and line of communication units.[51]
After four years of warfare, most Ottoman units were understrength and demoralised by desertions, sickness and shortage of supplies (although supplies were not short at Damascus when Desert Mounted Corps arrived there on 1 October 1918. It was possible to find food and forage for three cavalry divisions; 20,000 men and horses "without depriving the inhabitants of essential food."[52]). Liman nevertheless relied on the determination of the Turkish infantry and the strength of their front-line fortifications.[50] Although the numbers of artillery pieces and especially of machine guns among the defenders were unusually high, the Ottoman lines had only thin belts of barbed wire compared with those on the Western Front,[53] and Liman was unable to take into account the improved British tactical methods in set-piece offensives, involving surprise and short but accurate artillery preparation based on aerial reconnaissance.[54]
Battle
Opening attacks
On 16 September 1918, Arabs under T. E. Lawrence and
As the Ottomans reacted, sending the garrison of Al-Afuleh to reinforce Daraa,[57] the units of Chetwode's Corps made attacks in the hills above the Jordan on 17 and 18 September. The 53rd Division attempted to seize ground commanding the road system behind the Ottoman front lines. Some objectives were captured but a position known to the British as "Nairn Ridge" was defended by the Ottomans until late on 19 September. Once it was captured, roads could be constructed to link the British road systems with those newly captured.[58]
At the last minute, an Indian deserter had warned the Turks about the impending main attack. Refet Bey, the commander of the Ottoman XXII Corps on the Eighth Army's right flank, wished to withdraw to forestall the attack but his superiors Jevad Pasha, commanding the Ottoman Eighth Army, and Liman (who feared that the deserter was himself an attempted intelligence bluff) forbade him to do so.[13][56]
At 1:00 am on 19 September, the
Breakthrough of Ottoman line
At 4:30 am, Allenby's main attack by XXI Corps opened. A barrage by 385 guns (the field artillery of five divisions, five batteries of
From 10.00 hours onwards, a hostile aeroplane observer, if one had been available, flying over the Plain of Sharon would have seen a remarkable sight – ninety–four squadrons, disposed in great breadth and in great depth, hurrying forward relentlessly on a decisive mission – a mission of which all cavalry soldiers have dreamed, but in which few have been privileged to partake.
— Lieutenant Colonel Rex Osborn in The Cavalry Journal.[66]
According to Woodward, "concentration, surprise, and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby".[67] By the end of the first day of battle, the left flank unit of the British XXI Corps (the 60th Division) had reached Tulkarm[68] and the remnants of the Ottoman Eighth Army were in disorderly retreat under air attack by Bristol F.2 Fighters of No. 1 Australian Squadron, through the defile at Messudieh and into the hills to the east, covered by a few rearguards hastily organised by the Gernan Asia Korps headquarters and its commander, Oberst Gustav von Oppen.[69] The headquarters of the Ottoman XXII Corps had been overrun and captured,[70] although Refet Bey, the corps commander, escaped. Jevad Pasha, the army commander, had fled, and Mustafa Kemal Pasha at Seventh Army headquarters was unable to re-establish control over Eighth Army's troops.[citation needed]
Throughout the day, the RAF prevented any of the German aircraft based at Jenin from taking off and interfering with the British land operations. Relays of two S.E.5s from Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons, armed with bombs, circled over the German airfield at Jenin all day on 19 September. Whenever they spotted any movement on the ground, they bombed the airfield. Each pair of aircraft were relieved every two hours, machine-gunning the German hangars before departing.[71]
Encirclement of two Ottoman Armies
During the early hours of 20 September 1918, the Desert Mounted Corps secured the
Once nothing stood between Allenby's forces and Mustafa Kemal's Seventh Army in Nablus, Kemal decided that he lacked sufficient men to fight the British forces.[73] With the railway blocked, the Seventh Army's only escape route lay to the east, along the Nablus-Beisan road that led down the Wadi Fara into the Jordan valley.[74]
On the night of 20–21 September the Seventh Army began to evacuate Nablus.[74] By this time it was the last formed Ottoman army west of the Jordan and although there was a chance that Chetwode's XX Corps might cut off their retreat, its advance had been slowed by Ottoman rearguards. On 21 September, the Seventh Army was spotted by aircraft in a defile west of the river. The RAF proceeded to bomb the retreating army and destroyed the entire column. Waves of bombing and strafing aircraft passed over the column every three minutes and although the operation had been intended to last for five hours, the Seventh Army was routed in 60 minutes. The wreckage of the destroyed column stretched over 6 miles (9.7 km). British cavalry later found 87 guns, 55 motor-lorries, 4 motor-cars, 75 carts, 837 four-wheeled wagons, and scores of water-carts and field-kitchens destroyed or abandoned on the road.[75] Many Ottoman soldiers were killed and the survivors were scattered and leaderless. Lawrence later wrote that "the RAF lost four killed. The Turks lost a corps."[76]
According to Chauvel's biographer, Allenby's plan for the Battle of Megiddo was as "brilliant in execution as it had been in conception; it had no parallel in France or on any other front, but rather looked forward in principle and even in detail to the Blitzkrieg of 1939."[77] Over the next four days, the 4th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Division rounded up large numbers of demoralised and disorganised Ottoman troops in the Jezreel Valley. Many of the surviving refugees who crossed the Jordan were attacked and captured by Arabs as they approached or tried to bypass Daraa.[citation needed]
Liman deployed a rearguard to hold
Judean Hills fighting
As the Desert Mounted Corps and XXI Corps achieved their objectives, the units of XX Corps resumed their advance. Nablus was captured about noon on 21 September by the 10th Division and the Australian 5th Light Horse Brigade from XXI Corps. The British 53rd Division halted its advance towards the Wadi el Fara road when it became clear that the retreating Ottomans had effectively been destroyed by aerial attacks.
Later operations around Daraa
German and Ottoman aircraft had continued to operate from Daraa, harassing the Arab irregulars and insurgents still attacking railways and isolated Ottoman detachments about the town. At Lawrence's urging, British aircraft began operating from makeshift landing strips at Um el Surab nearby from 22 September. Three Bristol F.2 Fighters shot down several of the Ottoman aircraft. The Handley Page 0/400 ferried across petrol, ammunition and spares for the fighters and two Airco DH.9s, and itself bombed the airfield at Daraa early on 23 September and nearby Mafraq on the following night.[80]
Capture of Amman
On 22 September, on the western side of the Jordan River, the Ottoman 53rd Division was attacked at its headquarters near the Wadi el Fara road, by units from Meldrum's Force. This force consisted of the New Zealand Mounted Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General W. Meldrum), the Machine Gun Squadron, the mounted sections of the 1st and 2nd British West Indies Regiment, the 29th Indian Mountain Battery and Ayrshire (or Inverness) Battery RHA. Meldrum's force captured the commander of the 53rd Division, its headquarters and 600 prisoners, before defeating determined Ottoman rearguards to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge.[81][82][83][84]
The Ottoman Fourth Army had remained in its positions until 21 September, apparently unaware of the destruction of the Ottoman armies west of the Jordan until refugees reached them. That day, Liman ordered the Fourth Army to retreat to Daraa and Irbid, about 18 miles (29 km) to the west. The Fourth Army began to retreat from the Jordan and Amman on 22 September in increasing disorder due to attacks by British and Australian aircraft on 23 September which caused heavy casualties to the retreating troops on the roads between Es Salt and Amman. On the same day, Chaytor's Force advanced across the Jordan River to
On 25 September the Ottoman troops who had reached Mafraq by train from Amman, but who could proceed no further because the railway ahead was demolished, came under heavy aerial attack which caused many casualties and much disorder. Many Ottoman soldiers fled into the desert but several thousand maintained some order and, having abandoned their wheeled transport, continued to retreat northwards towards Daraa on foot or horseback, under constant air attack.[85]
Chaytor's Force captured Amman on 25 September.[82] The Ottoman detachment from Ma'an, also trying to retreat northwards, found its line of retreat blocked at Ziza, south of Amman, and surrendered intact to the Anzac Mounted Division on 28 September, rather than risk slaughter by Arab irregulars.[86][87]
I desire to convey to all ranks and all arms of the Force under my command, my admiration and thanks for their great deeds of the past week, and my appreciation of their gallantry and determination, which have resulted in the total destruction of the VIIth and VIIIth Turkish Armies opposed to us. Such a complete victory has seldom been known in all the history of war.
— E. H. H. Allenby General Commander in Chief EEF 26 September 1918[88]
Aftermath
Capture of Damascus
Allenby now ordered his cavalry to cross the Jordan, to capture Daraa and Damascus. Meanwhile, the 3rd (Lahore) Division advanced north along the coast towards Beirut and the 7th (Meerut) Division advanced on Baalbek in the Beqaa Valley, where the rearmost Ottoman depots and reinforcement camps were situated.[citation needed]
On 27 September, the 4th Mounted Division moved to Daraa, which had already been abandoned to Arab forces, and then advanced north on Damascus in company with them. The retreating Ottomans committed several atrocities against hostile Arab villages; in return, the Arab forces took no prisoners. Almost an entire Ottoman brigade (along with some German and Austrians) was massacred near the village of Tafas on 27 September, with the commander Jemal Pasha [citation needed] narrowly escaping. The Arabs repeated the performance the next day, losing a few hundred casualties while wiping out nearly 5,000 Turks in these two battles.[citation needed]
The 5th Mounted and Australian Mounted Divisions advanced directly across the
Overall, the campaign to the fall of Damascus resulted in the surrender of 75,000 Ottoman soldiers.[90]
Pursuit to Aleppo
After the fall of Damascus, the 5th Mounted Division and some detachments of the Arab Northern Army advanced north through Syria, capturing Aleppo on 26 October. They subsequently advanced to Mouslimmiye, where Mustafa Kemal (who had replaced Liman von Sanders in command of the Yıldırım Army Group) had rallied some troops under XXII Corps HQ. Kemal held his positions until 31 October, when hostilities ceased following the signing of the Armistice of Mudros.[citation needed]
Effects
The successful action at Megiddo resulted in the battle honour "Megiddo" being awarded to units of the British, Dominion and Empire forces participating in the battle. Battle honours for the two subsidiary battles of Sharon and Nablus were also awarded.[91]
Edward Erickson, a historian of the Ottoman Army, later wrote:
The Battle of the Nablus Plain ranks with Ludendorff's Black Days of the German Army in the effect that it had on the consciousness of the Turkish General Staff. It was now apparent to all but the most diehard nationalists that the Turks were finished in the war. In spite of the great victories in Armenia and in Azerbaijan, Turkey was now in an indefensible condition, which could not be remedied with the resources on hand. It was also apparent that the disintegration of the Bulgarian Army at Salonika and the dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian Army spelled disaster and defeat for the Central Powers. From now until the Armistice, the focus of the Turkish strategy would be to retain as much Ottoman territory as possible.[92]
The battle is commemorated in Thomas Hardy’s poem Jezreel: on its Seizure by the English under Allenby, September 1918.[93]
Notes
Citations
- ^ a b c Liddell Hart, p. 432 fn
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 168
- ISBN 978-0-7490-1502-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8021-3787-6.
- ^ Gullett 1919 pp. 25–26
- ^ Hill 1978 pp. 162–163
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol 2 Part I pp. 184–291, 302–309, Part II pp. 411–421
- ^ Perrett 1999, p. 16
- ^ Bruce 2002, p. 204
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol 2 Part I pp. 328–349, 364–394, Part II pp. 422–438
- ^ a b Erickson 2001, p. 194
- ^ Erickson 2001, p. 193
- ^ a b c d e f g h Liddell Hart, p. 437
- ^ Erickson 2001, p. 195
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 179
- ^ Grainger 2006 p. 234
- ^ a b Perrett 1999, p. 24
- ^ a b Hanafin, James. "Order of Battle of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, September 1918" (PDF). orbat.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
- ^ "53rd (Welsh) Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ Bruce 2002, p. 208
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 pp. 199–200
- ^ Lawrence, p. 141
- ^ Hughes, p. 23
- ISBN 978-1-84603-339-1.
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 532–533; Murphy, pp. 68, 73
- ^ Hughes, pp. 20–21
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 531–538
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 545–548
- ^ Hall 1975 pp. 120–121
- ^ a b Liddell Hart, p. 435
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 448
- ^ Maunsell p. 213
- ^ a b Carver 2003 p. 232
- ^ Bruce p. 216
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II pp. 455–456
- ^ Jukes, p. 307
- ^ Kinloch, p. 321
- ^ Allenby 24 July 1918 in Hughes 2004 pp. 168–169
- ^ Lawrence, p. 554
- ^ Downes 1938 p. 716
- ^ Powles 1922 p. 234
- ^ Lawrence, p. 570
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 589–590
- ^ Paget 1994 Vol. 5 pp. 255–257
- ^ Erickson 2007, pp. 134–135
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2, pp. 425–426
- ^ a b Falls (1964), p. 39
- ^ Cutlack pp. 133, 146–147
- ^ Erickson 2001, p. 197
- ^ a b Erickson 2001, p. 196
- ^ Falls (1964), p.47
- ^ Preston 1921 pp. 322–323
- ^ a b Erickson 2001, p. 198
- ^ Erickson 2001, p. 200
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 618–619
- ^ a b Erickson 2001 p. 198
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 623–624
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 471–472, 488–491
- ^ Baker 2003, p. 134
- ^ Cutlack p. 152
- ^ Liddell Hart, p. 436
- ^ Cutlack pp. 151–152
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 225, 232
- ^ Maunsell 1926 p. 213
- ^ a b Falls, p. 37
- ^ Woodward p. 195
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 191
- ^ a b Liddell Hart, p. 438
- ^ Falls (1964), p.58
- ^ Falls (1964), p.54
- ^ Baker 2003, pp. 134–135
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 529–532, 532–537
- ^ Mango 2002, p. 180
- ^ a b "Battle of Megiddo, 19–25 September 1918". historyofwar.com. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ Cutlack, p. 161
- ^ Baker 2003, pp. 136–137
- ^ Hill 1978 p. 173
- ^ Falls 1964, p. 88
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 542–545
- ^ Lawrence, pp. 638–640, 643
- ^ Powles 1922 pp. 245–246
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 p. 221
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 550
- ^ Moore 1920 pp. 148–150
- ^ a b Cutlack 1941 pp. 165–167
- ^ a b Falls 1964, pp. 97–99
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 555–556
- ^ Hughes 2004 p. 189
- ^ "Campaign Summary and Notes on Horse Artillery in Sinai and Palestine" (PDF). Field Artillery Journal. May–June 1928. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
- ^ a b Liddell Hart, p. 439
- ^ Singh 1993, p. 166
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 200
- ^ "Jezreel Poem by Thomas Hardy". 10 April 2010.
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- Downes, Rupert M. (1938). "The Campaign in Sinai and Palestine". In Butler, Arthur Graham (ed.). Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea. Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918: Volume 1 Part II (2nd ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. pp. 547–780. OCLC 220879097.
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- Erickson, Edward J. (2007). John Gooch; Brian Holden Reid (eds.). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. Cass Military History and Policy Series No. 26. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
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- OCLC 5003626.
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Further reading
- Cline, Eric H. (2000). The Battles of Armageddon: Megiddo and the Jezreel Valley from the Bronze Age to the Nuclear Age. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-09739-3.
- Lambden, Stephen (2000) [1999]. "Catastrophe, Armageddon and Millennium: Some Aspects of the Bábí-Baháʼí Exegesis of Apocalyptic Symbolism". ISSN 2040-1701.
External links
- Daddis, Gregory (2005). "Armageddon's Lost Lesson's – Combined Arms Operations in Allenby's Palestine Campaign" (PDF). Air University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 1 March 2009.