Battle of Norfolk
Battle of Norfolk | |
---|---|
Part of the Al Muthanna Governorate, Iraq | |
Result | Coalition victory |
United Kingdom
Frederick Franks
Thomas G. Rhame[1]
Rupert Smith[2]
Brig-Gen. Saheb Mohammed Alaw
Gen. Ayad Futayih al-Rawi[3]
Brig-Gen. Bassil Omar Al-Shalham[4]
10th Armored Division
12th Armored Division
52nd Armored Division
25th Infantry Division
26th Infantry Division
31st Infantry Division
48th Infantry Division[8]
9th Armored Brigade[9]
18th Mechanised Brigade[5]
50th Armored Brigade
29th Armored Brigade
American Sector:
21 killed[10]
67 wounded[10]
4 tanks destroyed[11][12]
4[12]– 5 IFVs destroyed[13]
Objective Dorset:
15 killed[10]
27 wounded[10]
3 tanks damaged[14][15]
15 killed[16]
43 wounded[16]
2 IFVs destroyed[17]
Iraq Sector:
937 captured
550 tanks destroyed[18]
480 armoured vehicles destroyed[18]
396 artillery pieces destroyed[19]
Objective Dorset:
2,500 captured[20]
300 tanks & IFVs destroyed[20]
7,000+ captured
Naval operations
- Air to Air combat
- Dhahran & Riyadh
- "Package Q" Air Strike
- Ras Tanura
- Samurra
- Amiriyah
- Order of battle
- 73 Easting
- Al Busayyah
- Phase Line Bullet
- Medina Ridge
- Highway of Death
- Jalibah
- Norfolk
- Kuwait International Airport
Post-ceasefire
The Battle of Norfolk was a
The Battle of Norfolk has been recognized by some sources as the second largest tank battle in American history and the largest tank battle of the 1st Gulf War.[27] No fewer than 12 divisions participated in the Battle of Norfolk along with multiple brigades and elements of a regiment.[25][23][28][29] American and British forces destroyed approximately 850 Iraqi tanks and hundreds of other types of combat vehicles.[18][22][23][20] Two additional Republican Guard divisions were destroyed at Objective Dorset by the U.S. 3rd Armored Division on 28 February 1991.[30][20] During this battle the U.S. 3rd Armored Division destroyed 300 enemy vehicles and captured 2,500 Iraqi soldiers.[20]
Overview
The battle took place about 60 miles (97 km) east of and 18 hours after the Battle of Al Busayyah, and several kilometers east of the Battle of 73 Easting, which had ended just two hours earlier. The Battle of Norfolk is named for Objective Norfolk, an area that encompassed the intersection of the IPSA Pipeline Road and several desert trails and a large Iraqi supply depot defended by Iraqi armor. Objective Norfolk was located west of Phase Line Kiwi, east of Phase Line Smash, and north of Phase Line Grape. Phase lines are map references occurring every few kilometers used to measure progress of an offensive operation.[31]
Participants
The U.S. Army's VII Corps was a formidable fighting force. In its inventory were 1,487 tanks, 1,384 infantry fighting vehicles, 568 artillery pieces, 132 MLRS, 8 missile launchers, and 242 attack helicopters.[32] It had a total troop strength of 146,321 troops.[33] The primary forces involved in the battle were the American 1st Infantry Division, the 3rd Brigade of the 2nd Armored Division (Fwd) ('Hell on Wheels') and the Iraqi 18th Mechanized and 9th Armoured Brigades of the Republican Guard Tawakalna Mechanized Infantry Division along with elements from eleven other Iraqi divisions including the Iraqi 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th Infantry Divisions.[25] The American 1st Infantry Division was quite formidable consisting of 334 M1A1 tanks and 224 M2A2 Bradley fighting vehicles.[34] Task Force 1-41 Infantry of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division (Fwd) would spearhead the U.S. 1st Infantry Division and the rest of VII Corps throughout the war.[20] The U.S. 1st Cavalry Division was also a participant.[6]
The British fielded their 1st Armoured Division.
The Iraqi 52nd Armored Division was also a primary participant.
Counter reconnaissance
Task Force 1-41 Infantry was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991.[42] Task Force 1-41 Infantry was a heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Shortly after arrival in theater Task Force 1-41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission along with the 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment.[43] This joint effort became known as Task Force Iron.[44] Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that were observing American forces.[45] On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4-3 FA.[46] Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4-3 FA.[47] Later that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet-made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1-41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4-3 FA.[47] On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire, however, the enemy forces managed to escape.[48] Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.[49] On 18 February Iraqi mortar positions continued to conduct fire missions against the Task Force. The Task Force returned fire on the Iraqi positions with artillery fire from 4-3 FA Battalion and 1st Infantry Division Artillery.[50] During the Iraqi mortar attacks two American soldiers were wounded.[51] Iraqi reconnaissance elements continued to patrol the area between the Task Force and the 1st Cavalry Division.[50] VII Corps air units and artillery conducted combat operations against Iraqi defensive positions.[52]
Breach
The breach was preceded by a heavy
On 24 February 1991 the 1st Cavalry Division conducted a couple artillery missions against Iraqi artillery units.
The 1st Infantry Division's Task Force 2-16 Infantry cleared four lanes simultaneously through an enemy fortified trench system while inflicting heavy casualties.[20] Task Force 2-16 continued the attack clearing over 13 miles of entrenched enemy positions resulting in the capture and destruction of numerous enemy vehicles, equipment, personnel and command bunkers.[20]
Battle
For three and a half hours 90,000 artillery rounds were fired on Iraqi defensive positions preceding the major ground assault.[69]
On 22 February and 23 February 1st Infantry Division artillery and 4-3 FA Battalion conducted artillery raids against Iraqi targets.[70]
Early morning on 23 February the 1st Cavalry Division also conducted artillery raids and reconnaissance operations along the border berm.[70]
Also, on 23 February the 210th Field Artillery Brigade conducted fire missions at Iraqi targets across the berm.[71]
On 23 February the 1st Infantry Division conducted Apache helicopter raids against the Iraqi 110th Infantry Brigade.[72]
On 24 February 1991 Task Force 1-41 Infantry was engaged by Iraqi infantry units armed with RPGs. The Iraqi soldiers were either killed or captured.[64] Later that same day 4-3 FA conducted artillery strikes to the north of its position against Iraqi positions.[73] The Iraqis would engage Task Force 1–41 with artillery and mortar fire with little success.[73] That same day the Task Force along with other American units continued clearing Phase Line New Jersey.[74]
Later on 24 February 1991 Task Force 1-41 would have a hand in the destruction of the Iraqi 110th and 434th Infantry Brigades of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division.[75]
On 25 February 1991 the Task Force would engage and destroy the Iraqi Jihad Corps, which consisted of the 10th and 12th Armored Divisions, in direct combat.[40]
On 26 February 1991 Task Force 1-41 Infantry, led by 3-66 Armor Battalion, would engage and destroy an Iraqi T-55 tank battalion.[76]
The Battle of Norfolk was in a sense a continuation of the fighting that began with the Battle of 73 Easting. It took place under rainy and foggy weather conditions.[77] It began at 0030 on 27 February 1991. During the early stages 1st Infantry Division Artillery, including 4-3 FA battalion, was decisive during combat operations performing multiple raids and fire missions. These combat operations resulted in the destruction of 50 enemy tanks, 139 APCs, 30 air defense systems, 152 artillery pieces, 27 missile launchers, 108 mortars, and 548 wheeled vehicles, 61 trench lines and bunker positions, 92 dug in and open infantry targets, and 34 logistical sites.[78] Two American Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicles were destroyed by the Iraqi Republican Guard 18th Mechanized Brigade while conducting forward reconnaissance.[79] American artillery and MLRS units continued to conduct fire missions against Iraqi targets a dozen miles to the east.[80] With air support from the 2nd Battalion, 1st Aviation's attack helicopters[81] and fire support from both the 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment and the rest of 1st Infantry Division artillery preventing Iraqi artillery from interfering, the U.S. 1st Infantry Division conducted a passage of the 2nd ACR's lines.[82]
The two attacking brigades of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division, including the 3rd Brigade of the 2nd Armored Division (Fwd), were positioned along the 75 Easting, 2,000 meters east of 73 Easting. The Brigades clashed with the Iraqi Tawakalna Division of the Republican Guard, including the 37th Brigade of the 12th Iraqi Armored Division.[31] The 1st Infantry Division's two lead Brigades also clashed with the Iraqi 9th Armored Brigade and 18th Mechanized Brigade in the early stages of the battle. 1st Battalion, 1st Aviation's attack helicopters also participated in these initial battles.[83] Elements of the Iraqi 12th Armored Division were destroyed during this engagement by Task Force 1-41 Infantry. This was a slow moving division that was significantly outmatched by U.S. and British forces.[37] Some 40 Iraqi tanks were destroyed and a similar number of other combat vehicles.[18]
A reconnaissance party from 4-3 FA mistakenly moved well forward of the other Task Force 1-41 Infantry units. Task Force 3-66 Armor was given the assignment of looking for the lost reconnaissance party. As Task Force 3-66 Armor approached the reconnaissance party, enemy infantry foolishly took it under fire from fighting positions near the disoriented 4-3 FA recon party. TF 3-66 M1A1 Abrams tanks and Bradley infantry fighting vehicles fought back with only machine guns rather than cannons to reduce the danger of hitting TF 1-41 IN, which stood just beyond the enemy. TF 3-66 AR machine gun fire drove the enemy right into TF 1-41 IN with Hillman's troops capturing all of the enemy soldiers. TF 3-66 AR recovered the members of the lost reconnaissance party unharmed.[84]
On 27 February 1991 Task Force 1-41 Infantry destroyed an Iraqi T-55 tank battalion that ambushed the Task Force.[85] The Iraqi tank unit managed to destroy a Bradley Fighting Vehicle and killed three soldiers belonging to the Task Force.[86] That same day Task Force 1-41 destroyed an Iraqi RPG team, machine gun nest, and a bunker.[86]
On 27 February 1991 Task Force 1-41 destroyed another Iraqi tank unit at great range at Objective Denver.[87] The 2nd Armored Division (Forward) destroyed 60 Iraqi tanks and 35 AFVs along the Iraq Pipeline to Saudi Arabia (IPSA).[88] Task Force 1-41 and other 2nd Armored Division(Fwd) units would successfully secure the Iraq Pipeline to Saudi Arabia and capture a massive Iraqi logistics installation in the process.[89] The Task Force and the 1st Infantry Division also cleared an extensive bunker complex which housed RPG equipped Iraqi infantry.[90]
In the thick of the fog of war, U.S. units became mixed with Iraqi units dispersed throughout the desert. This confusion led to some friendly fire incidents.[91] Task Force 1-41 Infantry was involved in the worst US "friendly fire" incident of the Gulf War on 27 February 1991.[92]
The 2nd Armored Division(Fwd) continued to fight a series of short, sharp battles with Iraqi tank platoons as it moved across the Wadi al-Batin into Kuwait.[93] On 27 February 1991 an Iraqi tank unit attacked 4-3 FA.[93] The Iraqi tank unit was destroyed by a Task Force 1-41 tank platoon that was assigned to protect 4-3 FA.[93]
Task Force 1-41 captured almost an entire Iraqi tank battalion on 27 February 1991.[94]
The
The 1st Infantry Division's Task Force 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry destroyed elements of the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division.[20] The 1st Infantry Division's Task Force 2nd Battalion, 34th Armor destroyed the 9th Armored Brigade of the Tawakalna Division of the Republican Guard.[20]
The 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment led the 1st Infantry Division's attack across Iraq and Kuwait, cutting the Iraqi army's escape route along the Kuwait City/Basra Highway. The Squadron continued its rapid advance, culminating with the capture of the Safwan Airfield, Iraq. The 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment destroyed 65 tanks, 66 Armored Personnel Carriers, 66 trucks, 91 bunkers, and captured 3,010 enemy soldiers.[20]
As part of the 1st Infantry Division, Task Force 3-37 Armor attacked 186 miles across southern Iraq into northern Kuwait, severing Iraqi lines of communication, and then drove north into Iraq to assist in the seizure of the City of Safwan, Iraq, and the securing of the Safwan Airfield for the Coalition Forces-Iraqi Cease-Fire negotiations.[20] During the operation, over 50 enemy combat vehicles were destroyed and over 1,700 Iraqi soldiers were captured.[20]
During the battle, the 4th Battalion, 37th Armor, 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division engaged elements of five Iraqi Divisions, destroyed numerous combat vehicles and captured over 450 enemy soldiers, ensuring an unprecedented victory for Coalition Forces.[20]
By dawn, the U.S. 1st Infantry Division controlled Objective Norfolk and the Tawakalna Mechanized Infantry Division had ceased to exist as a fighting force. A total of eight Iraqi divisions were destroyed. Task Force 1-41 Infantry had around a dozen combat vehicles destroyed, including multiple M1A1 Abrams tanks, during combat operations. The 2nd Armored Division(Fwd) and the 1st Infantry Division destroyed 550 Iraqi tanks and 480 other armored vehicles during combat operations.[18] Approximately 11,500 Iraqi soldiers surrendered to the 1st Infantry Division by the end of combat operations.[95] The 2nd Armored Division(Fwd) suffered 4 M1A1 Abrams tanks destroyed during combat operations.[11][12] It also suffered the loss of 5 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicles.[11] The 1st Infantry Division, including the 2nd Armored Division(Fwd), suffered 21 soldiers killed in action and another 67 soldiers wounded in action by the end of combat operations.[10]
British contribution
The British 1st Armoured Division was responsible for protecting the right flank of VII Corps. It was assumed by the Corps' planners the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division would counterattack VII Corps once their penetration into Iraqi defenses was discovered. The British 1st Armoured Division had two brigades (the 4th and 7th) which participated in Operation Granby, the name given to the British military operations during the 1991 Gulf War.
The 1st Armoured was equipped with the
This small but powerful division was commanded by 47-year-old Maj. General
On 25 February 1991 the 1st Armoured Division broke into the western flank of the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division which was commanded by Brigadier General
On 26 February 1991 British artillery units unleashed an hour-long artillery strike on Iraqi positions. It was the greatest British artillery display since World War II. That same night the British 7th Brigade fought a night tank battle against an Iraqi tank battalion from the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division. After ninety minutes of battle over 50 Iraqi tanks and armoured personnel carriers were destroyed.[22] That same night the British 4th Brigade destroyed a headquarters and artillery site belonging to the 807th Brigade of the Iraqi 48th Infantry Division. British infantry units cleared Iraqi defensive positions which were occupied by the Iraqi 803rd Infantry Brigade.[98]
After 48 hours of combat the British 1st Armoured Division destroyed or isolated four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and overran the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division in several sharp engagements. The Iraqi 80th Armored Brigade would also fall victim to the British 1st Armoured Division.[99] For several hours the 4th Brigade was involved in a battle against a battalion of dug in Iraqi soldiers and T-55 tanks.[100]
A Challenger 1 from the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards destroyed an Iraqi tank at a range of 5,000 metres (3.1 mi). This was the longest recorded tank to tank kill in the history of armored warfare.[101][102]
The British 7th Brigade cleared Objective Platinum destroying at least six additional T-55 tanks in dug in positions and a bunker using Milan missiles.[17]
The 4th Brigade seized Objective Steel defeating the Iraqi 103rd Brigade, 25th Infantry Division in the process.[17] As the British 4th Brigade advanced they destroyed additional Iraqi guns and fighting positions.[17] The British lost two Warrior combat vehicles to friendly fire in the process.[17]
British ground forces had defeated Iraqi forces during combat engagements at Objectives Copper, Zinc, Bronze, and Steel.[17] During combat operations at Objective Zinc the British captured 30 enemy tanks, destroyed 16 IFVs, and captured 1,850 Iraqi soldiers.[103]
British forces destroyed a communications site and two artillery positions en route to Objective Bronze.[104] British forces also destroyed 12 Iraqi tanks, 11 guns, and 20 light armor and thin skin vehicles while clearing Objective Bronze.[104] Elements of several Iraqi infantry brigades would also be destroyed at Objective Bronze.[105]
The British 4th Brigade destroyed an entire tank battle group which included 25 main battle tanks at Objective Copper South.[106] The 4th Brigade also cleared Copper South of Iraqi soldiers, IFVs, artillery, logistics support vehicles, and captured two division commanders.[106]
The British 26 Field Artillery Regiment conducted fire missions against a tank heavy unit at Objective Brass.[107] This included the destruction of 48 tanks, APCs, and 25 MT-LBs all hidden in fighting positions.[107] An artillery position was also present and destroyed.[107] The entire enemy position was destroyed and British infantry cleared the trench lines of Iraqi soldiers.[107]
British forces destroyed another 25 tanks and 20 APCs at position Brass 3.[108]
While taking Objective Platinum 2 the British destroyed an Iraqi tank company in the process.[109]
Later in the day the 1st Battalion, Staffordshire Regiment, 7th Brigade engaged Iraqi forces at Objective Lead. The 1st Battalion, Staffordshire Regiment destroyed over 40 Iraqi tanks and numerous other combat systems.[109] The British forces also captured over 800 Iraqi soldiers including the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division commander while destroying additional Iraqi infantry units.[109]
The British also destroyed several companies of Iraqi T-55 tanks and MT-LBs at the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division's headquarters.[111]
In the process of moving to Phase Line Smash the British forces took artillery and anti tank fire from Iraqi forces.[109] The Iraqis failed to inflict any casualties on the British forces.[109]
On 27 February 1991 a joint British and American artillery fire mission destroyed what was left of Iraqi artillery and infantry forces at Objective Tungsten.[21] Approximately 70 Iraqi artillery pieces were destroyed.[112]
The British also took Objective Waterloo.[21] In the process the British destroyed approximately five Iraqi divisions in 48 hours of combat.[21]
The British 1st Armoured Division secured the final objectives on the Basra Highway north of Multa Ridge.[23]
In the final operation the British 7th Brigade took Objective Cobalt while the 4th Brigade halted farther west.[113]
The British 1st Armoured Division had traveled 217 miles in 97 hours. The British 1st Armored Division had captured or destroyed about 300 tanks[114] and a very large number of armored personnel carriers, trucks, reconnaissance vehicles, etc.[22][23] The Desert Rats also destroyed multiple Iraqi artillery positions.[24] The division also took over 7,000 Iraqi prisoners of war including two division commanders and two other general officers.[21] British forces did not lose a single Challenger 1 tank during combat operations.[114] The British suffered 15 soldiers killed and another 43 soldiers wounded during combat operations.[16] The British also lost 2 British Warrior APCs in a friendly fire incident.[17]
Objective Dorset
On 26 February the U.S. 3rd Armored Division was tasked with clearing Objective Dorset which was well defended by Iraqi forces.[9] The 3rd Armored Division, along with the U.S. 1st Armored Division, already was responsible for the destruction of 76 Iraqi tanks and 84 infantry fighting vehicles during the Battle of 73 Easting.[115] The Iraqi Tawakalna Republican Guard division had a significant presence at Objective Dorset.[9] The 50th Armored Brigade was the first unit the 3rd Armored Division encountered during the operation.[9] The Iraqi defenses in this sector also consisted of three mechanized battalions from the 29th Armored Brigade and two armored and one mechanized battalion from the 9th Armored Brigade.[9] The 46th Mechanized Brigade of the 12th Armored Division was also present.[9] A T-62 tank battalion from the 10th Armored Division was also attached to the Tawakalna Republican Guard Division.[9] This added up to approximately eight Iraqi heavy battalions occupying Objective Dorset.[9] In the space of only 270 square kilometers the Iraqis massed over 122 tanks, 78 BMPs, and hundreds of other combat vehicles and fighting systems.[9] All would fall victim to the 3rd Armored Division. On 26 February 3rd Armored Division Artillery conducted fire missions against Iraqi targets including trucks, a mortar position, and a series of bunker complexes.[116] An Iraqi artillery position was also destroyed.[116]
Initially thousands of Iraqi infantrymen engaged the U.S. 3rd Armored Division with Sagger antitank missiles and RPGs from dug in defensive fighting positions.[9] The Iraqi defensive network also consisted of bunkers and dug in vehicles.[117] The Iraqis also had the support of a dozen field artillery batteries directly behind the rear of the Tawakalna Republican Guard Division.[9] There were no soft or exposed Iraqi flanks to exploit.[9] The 3rd Armored Division overcame these Iraqi defensive positions utilizing superior command and control along with well coordinated combined arms tactics.[118] On 27 February 3rd Armored Division Artillery conducted 42 fire missions, and fired 827 rounds at Iraqi targets.[119] In total 3rd Armored Division Artillery fired 2,854 rounds and its MLRS units fired 555 rockets during combat operations.[116] U.S. A-10 attack aircraft and Apache helicopters also conducted operations against Iraqi targets.[120]
By late 27 February the U.S. 3rd Armored Division cleared Objective Dorset after meeting stiff resistance and destroying more than 300 enemy vehicles.[20] The 3rd Brigade, 3rd Armored Division also captured 2,500 enemy prisoners.[20] The 3rd Brigade, 3rd Armored Division actions contributed greatly to the destruction of two Iraqi Republican Guard Divisions.[20] In 24 hours of nearly continuous combat, the Brigade destroyed or captured 547 vehicles, including 102 tanks, 81 armored personnel carriers, 34 artillery pieces, 15 AAA guns and captured hundreds of tons of supplies and 528 prisoners of war.[20] The 3rd Armored Division had three M1A1 Abrams tanks damaged during combat operations.[14][121] The 3rd Armored Division suffered 15 soldiers killed between December 1990 and late February 1991.[10] Approximately 7 of the soldiers were killed in action and another 27 soldiers from the division were wounded in action during combat operations.[10]
Aftermath
By the end of combat operations on 28 February 1991, VII Corps had driven 260 kilometers, captured 22,000 Iraqi soldiers, and destroyed 1,350 Iraqi tanks, 1,224 armored personnel carriers, 285 artillery pieces, 105 air defense systems, and 1,229 trucks.
The U.S.
VII Corps suffered 62 killed and 235 wounded. It also suffered 4 M1A1 tanks destroyed and 9 damaged,[123] 14 Bradley Fighting Vehicles were destroyed and 9 damaged, 2 helicopters were destroyed and 3 damaged, and 9 other vehicles of various types were destroyed or damaged during combat operations.[124]
Historical significance
Some sources list the Battle of Norfolk as the second largest tank battle in American history behind the Battle of the Bulge.[27] There are other sources that list it as the second or even the third largest tank battle of the Gulf War behind the Battle of Medina Ridge and the Battle of 73 Easting.[20]
See also
Notes
- ^ Bourque, p.14
- ^ Bourque, p.43
- ^ Bourque P.247
- ^ a b Bourque, p.164
- ^ a b Bourque, p.333
- ^ a b Bourque P.252
- ^ Bourque pp.331,335
- ^ Bourque pp.134,144,377
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bourque P.337
- ^ a b c d e f g Bourque P.471
- ^ a b c Rostker Tab H
- ^ a b c Guardia p.71
- ^ Bourque, p.336
- ^ a b Scales, Brig. Gen. Robert H.: Certain Victory. Brassey's, 1994, p. 279.
- ^ official account
- ^ a b c Bourque, p.471
- ^ a b c d e f g Bourque P.289
- ^ a b c d e Westwell, p. 88
- ^ a b c Bourque P.161
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa VUA Citation
- ^ a b c d e Bourque P.319
- ^ a b c d e f Bourque, p.275
- ^ a b c d e f Bourque, p.377
- ^ a b Halberstadt P.117, 121
- ^ a b c Bourque, p.144
- ^ Dinackus P.4–10
- ^ a b "These were the 6 most massive tank battles in US history". 16 April 2021.
- ^ a b Bourque P.333, P.337
- ^ a b c Bourque, p.260
- ^ a b Conduct of the Persian Gulf War: final report to Congress p.339
- ^ a b Bourque, p.134
- ^ Bourque p.90
- ^ Bourque p.473
- ^ Bourque P.195
- ^ "United States Army 3rd Armored Division (Spearhead) | City of Grove Oklahoma".
- ^ Bourque P.185
- ^ a b c d Bourque P.243
- ^ Bourque p.243
- ^ a b Bourque p.19
- ^ a b c Bourque p.244
- ^ Bourque P.324
- ^ a b VUA Citation.
- ^ Hillman, p.6
- ^ Bourque & Burdan p.95
- ^ Bourque, p.96
- ^ Bourque, p.98
- ^ a b Bourque, p.99
- ^ Bourque, p. 102
- ^ Bourque, p.103
- ^ a b Bourque p.160
- ^ Bourque p. 159-160
- ^ Bourque p. 160
- ^ Bourque p.164
- ^ a b "The Gulf War and "European Artillery" – the Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army". 20 January 2015.
- ^ Bourque pp.163
- ^ Bourque P.201
- ^ Bourque P.156-157
- ^ a b Lingamfelter p.191
- ^ a b Lingamfelter p.135
- ^ Bourque P. 163
- ^ Bourque P.163
- ^ a b c Bourque P.206
- ^ a b c Bourque P.207
- ^ a b c Bourque P.225
- ^ a b c Desert Storm/Shield Valorous Unit Award Citations
- ^ Bourque, pp.113-133
- ^ a b Bourque P.259
- ^ "Correcting Myths About the Persian Gulf War: The Last Stand of the Tawakalna". 30 April 2015.
- ^ Bourque 2001, p. 194.
- ^ a b Bourque p.199
- ^ Bourque p.200
- ^ Bourque p.201
- ^ a b Bourque p.225
- ^ Bourque p.226
- ^ Bourque p.230
- ^ Bourque p.334
- ^ Zaloga P.61
- ^ Lingamfelter P.190-191
- ^ Zaloga P.64
- ^ Bourque P.332
- ^ Bourque, p.330
- ^ Bourque, p.331
- ^ Bourque p.333
- ^ Fontenot P.294
- ^ Bourque P.334,335
- ^ a b Bourque P.335
- ^ Bourque P.372
- ^ Zaloga (2009), p. 64
- ^ Bourque p.337
- ^ Bourque p.336
- ^ Bourque, p.100
- ^ Burns
- ^ a b c Bourque P.375
- ^ Bourque p.373
- ^ Westwell P.88
- ^ Dunstan P.8
- ^ Bourque, p.261
- ^ Bourque, p.276
- ^ Bourque p.265
- ^ Bourque P.276
- ^ "National Army Museum Middle East: Gulf War". www.nam.ac.uk/. National Army Museum. 26 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
One tank, from the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, had the distinction of the longest range tank-to-tank kill in military history, destroying an Iraqi tank at a range of around 5km (3 miles).
- ^ "Remembering Operation Granby - 30 years ago today". British Army. 14 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- ^ Halberstadt P.116-117
- ^ a b Halberstadt P.117
- ^ Bourque p.276
- ^ a b Halberstadt P.118
- ^ a b c d Halberstadt P.119
- ^ Halberstadt P.120
- ^ a b c d e Bourque P.315
- ^ "The British Challenger 1 Main Battle Tank".
- ^ Bourque p.275
- ^ Halberstadt P.121
- ^ Bourque P.395
- ^ a b "Challenger 1 Main Battle Tank".
- ^ Bourque P.344
- ^ a b c "3d Armored Division Artillery Historical Summary - Desert Storm".
- ^ Bourque P.340
- ^ Bourque P.340,341,342
- ^ http://www.3ad.com/history/gulf.war/divarty.summary.htm p.
- ^ Bourque p.339
- ^ official account
- ISBN 1-55750-081-9.
- ^ Army's Office of Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans
- ^ "Jayhawk Goes to War: VII Corps in Operation DESERT STORM – the Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army". 30 April 2016.
References
- Conduct of the Persian Gulf War: final report to Congress (PDF), United States. Dept. of Defense, 1992, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-15
- "Desert Storm/Shield Valorous Unit Award Citations". Washington, D.C.: US Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
- Bourque, Stephen A. (2001). Jayhawk! The 7th Corps in the Persian Gulf War. Center of Military History, United States Army. OCLC 51313637.
- Bourque, Stephen A.; Burdan, John (2007). The road to Safwan the 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Denton, Tex: University of North Texas Press. ISBN 9781574412321.
- Rostker, Bernard (2000), Environmental Exposure Report, Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II), US Department of Defense
- Westwell, Ian (2001). 1st Infantry Division 'Big Red One'. Spearhead #6. Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan. ISBN 9780711029231.
- Zaloga, Steven J. (2009). M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural:Operation Desert Storm 1991. Osprey. OCLC 277201894.
- Guardia, Mike (2016). Bradley vs BMP : Desert Storm 1991. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4728-1520-0.
- https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005030/http://www.2cr.army.mil/info/history/2SCR%20history%2020%20Jan%202011.pdf
- Desert Rats:The British 4 and 7 Armoured Brigades, WW2 to Today by Hans Halberstadt
- Challenger Squadron by Simon Dunstan
- The First Infantry Division and the U.S. Army Transformed: Road to Victory in Desert Storm, 1970-1991 by Gregory Fontenot
- Desert Redleg: Artillery Warfare in the First Gulf War by Col. L. Scott Lingamfelter
- Burton, James G. The Pentagon Wars: Reformers Challenge the Old Guard, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1993. ISBN 1-55750-081-9.
Bibliography
- Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War, by Rick Atkinson, Houghton Mifflin, 1993. OCLC 28378277