Battle of Tabsor
Battle of Tabsor | |
---|---|
Part of the Et Tire 32°11′36″N 34°52′38″E / 32.19333°N 34.87722°E | |
Result | Entente victory |
- Eighth Army
- Ottoman XXII Corps
- Asia Corps
The Battle of Tabsor was fought on 19–20 September 1918 beginning the
During the Battle of Tabsor the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and 75th Divisions attacked the entrenched Ottoman Empire Eighth Army defending the Tabsor defences. These defences were located in the middle section of the front line, assigned to the XXI Corps. On their left the Battle of Tulkarm was being fought with the Battle of Arara fought on their right. Together with the cavalry phase, these battles make up the Battle of Sharon, which, with the Battle of Nablus, fought by the XX Corps and Chaytor's Force, have become known as the Battle of Megiddo. Megiddo developed into a major set piece offensive, when large formations of the Allied EEF, attacked and responded to the reactions of three Ottoman armies, each time following a predetermined plan. The offensive resulted in defeat for Ottoman forces in Palestine, Syria and the Transjordan.
These operations began the Final Offensive, ultimately resulting in the destruction of the equivalent of an Ottoman army and the retreat in disarray of what remained of two armies. The defeat of the Yildirim Army Group, commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders, resulted in the capture of many thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory stretching from the Judean Hills. After the battle of Megiddo, Desert Mounted Corps pursued the retreating German and Ottoman soldiers to Damascus, which was captured six days later, when the pursuit continued on to close to the border of modern-day Turkey. Five weeks after the Final Offensive began and with Aleppo captured, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire ending the fighting in this theatre.
The Battle of Tabsor began with an intense creeping bombardment, during which three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps attacked the Tabsor defences; the only continuous trench-and-redoubt system on the Ottoman front line. As they advanced, their left flank was protected by the 60th Division, which advanced up the coast to
Background
By July, it was clear that the
Reorganisation of EEF infantry
After the
By April 1918, 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were being prepared to move to Palestine.
Of the 54 Indian battalions deployed to Palestine, 22 had recent experience of combat, but had each lost an experienced company, which had been replaced by recruits. Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together. The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war; in total, almost a third of the troops were recruits.[15] Within 44 Indian battalions, the "junior British officers were green, and most could not speak Hindustani. In one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men."[16] Not all of the Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions, some were employed in defence of the lines of communication.[17]
Front line
By September 1918 the front line held by the EEF began virtually at sea level at a point on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles (19 km) north of
Prelude
British plans and preparations
On the first quarter of the front line, which stretched 15 miles (24 km) across the Plain of Sharon from the Mediterranean Sea, the XXI Corps deployed 35,000 infantry, the Desert Mounted Corps 9,000 cavalry and the artillery's 383 guns for their attacks on the Eighth Army. On the remaining three quarters of front line, ending at the Dead Sea, 22,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 157 guns of the XX Corps and Chaytor's Force were deployed facing the Ottoman Seventh and Fourth Armies.[20]
The Battle of Sharon was to begin with an attack on an 8-mile (13 km)-long stretch of front line between the
The four infantry divisions of the XXI Corps were to begin the Battle of Sharon by attacking in overwhelming strength, supported by the greatest possible weight of artillery. The first objective of breaking the German and Ottoman front line was assigned to the 60th Division. They were to create a gap sufficiently large to enable the cavalry to safely advance to the rear of the German and Ottoman forces in the Judean Hills.
After the cavalry breakthrough on the coast, the XXI Corps would advance to capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army at Tulkarm and cut the railway lines. Sections of the lateral rail line in the Judean Hills between Tulkarm and Nablus and a branch of the Jezreel Valley railway, were to be denied to the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies. These lines, including the important railway junction at Messudieh, transported their supplies into the Judean Hills.[3][27] The British infantry divisions were to continue their attack by swinging north–east, pivoting on their right to push the defenders back out of their trenches away from the coast and back into the Judean Hills towards Messudieh.[28]
While the brigades of the XXI Corps' 3rd (Lahore), the 7th (Meerut) and the 75th Divisions attacked the Tabsor defences, the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie defended and pivoted on the Rafat salient covering the right flank. Further to the right, the XX Corps would begin the Battle of Nablus in the Judean Hills in support of the main attack by the XXI Corps, by advancing to capture the Seventh Army headquarters at Nablus and blocking the main escape route from the Judean Hills to the Jisr ed Damieh.[29][30][31][32][Note 3]
Together, these attacks would force the Central Powers to retreat back along their main
British Empire deployments
The actual frontage which would be directly attacked by the British Empire infantry was about 10 miles (16 km) long, but it was not continuous. There were about 5 miles (8.0 km) of gaps in their deployment, where the terrain was unfavourable for a frontal attack. During the advance, a planned right-flanking movement by all the infantry divisions aimed to bring them in touch with one another. At this point in their advance, Ottoman units in those areas unfavourable for frontal attack would be forced to withdraw by the threatening encirclement, be outflanked or be captured from the rear.[19][36]
The final deployment, which was made during 35 minutes of darkness between moon-set and dawn, placed the divisions at right angles to the direction of their advance. The XXI Corps' 60th Division was deployed closest to the coast with the 7th (Meerut) Division on their right and then the 75th Division with the longest frontage, followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division, the 54th (East Anglian) Division and finally the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie at Rafat, at the eastern end of the XXI Corps front line in the foothills of the Judean Hills. There was no corps reserve.[37][Note 4]
German and Ottoman forces and preparations
In August 1918, the Central Powers' Yildirim Army Group commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders consisted of 40,598 front-line infantrymen organised into twelve divisions defending a 56 miles (90 km) long front. They were armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns. The high number of machine guns reflects the Ottoman Army's new tables of organization.[38][Note 5]
The 7th, 19th and 20th Divisions held the shortest frontage in the entire Yildirim Army Group. The 7th and 20th Divisions together held a total of 7.5 miles (12.1 km) of trenches. The 7th Division held 4.3 miles (6.9 km) nearest the coast while the 20th Division held 3.1 miles (5.0 km) and the Asia Corps' 19th Division held 6.2 miles (10.0 km) of trenches further inland. The 46th Division formed the reserve 7.5 miles (12.1 km) from the front line, near the Eighth Army's headquarters at Tulkarm.[44][45]
These divisions were some of the most highly regarded fighting formations in the Ottoman Army; in 1915 the 7th and 19th Divisions had fought as part of Esat Pasa's III Corps at Gallipoli.[Note 6] The 20th Division had also fought towards the end of the Gallipoli campaign and served for a year in Galicia fighting against Russians on the Eastern Front. This regular army division, which had been raised and stationed in Palestine, was sometimes referred to as the Arab Division.[46]
The XXII Corps was supported by the majority of the Yildirim Army's heavy artillery for counter battery operations. Here, three of the five Ottoman Army heavy artillery batteries in Palestine (the 72nd, 73rd and 75th Batteries) were deployed. Further, the Ottoman front line regiments had been alerted that a major attack was imminent.[47]
Other views of this force
The Ottoman armies were understrength, overstretched, suffering greatly from a strained supply system, overwhelmingly outnumbered by the EEF by about two to one, and "haemorrhaging" deserters.[42][48] The effective strengths of the nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division were each equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men while 150 to 200 men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Division without taking into account the large number of machine guns in these Asia Corps divisions.[38][Note 7] Problems with the supply system in February 1918 resulted in the normal daily ration in Palestine being 125 grains (0.29 oz) of bread and boiled beans in the morning, at noon, and at night, without oil or any other condiment.[49]
Tabsor defences
The Tabsor defences consisted of the only continuous trench and
On 17 September 1918, Ottoman Army intelligence accurately placed five infantry divisions and a detachment opposite their Eighth Army. As a consequence, the 46th Infantry Division was moved up 8.1 miles (13.0 km) to the south–west to a new reserve position at Et Tire, directly behind the Ottoman XXII Corps's front line divisions.[47]
Battle
19 September
Bombardment
At 04:30 a bombardment by artillery, trench mortars and machine guns began firing at the German and Ottoman front and second lines of trenches in front of XXI Corps.[19][51] This intense bombardment, which closely resembled a Western-Front-style bombardment, continued for a half-hour, with guns deployed one to every 50 yards (46 m) of front on the coastal sector.[52][53][Note 9] Under cover of this bombardment, the leading infantry advanced to the front line. Just before their arrival, the barrage lifted and began firing behind the Ottoman front line. There was no attempt at systematic attempt by the artillery to cut the wire; the leading units were to cut it by hand or carry some way of crossing or bridging it.[54]
The artillery was organised by weight and targets:
7th (Meerut) Division attack western sector
The 7th (Meerut) Division, consisting of the 19th, 21st and 28th Brigades, commanded by Major General V. B. Fane, advanced under cover of the bombardment; their creeping barrage moving forward at a rate of 100 yards (91 m) per minute. They were to assault the western end of the Tabsor defences, between a wadi west of Tabsor and the
The 7th (Meerut) Division's 19th Brigade consisting of the
The remaining two battalions of the 21st Brigade, the
The third brigade of the 7th (Meerut) Division (the 28th Brigade), consisting of the
75th Division attack the centre
Comprising the 232nd, 233rd and 234th Brigades, the 75th Division advanced (with the 233rd Brigade in reserve) under cover of the creeping barrage which lifted at a rate of 50 yards (46 m) per minute. The bombardment in front of their line was so accurate that the leading infantry units were able to keep within 40 yards (37 m) of the advancing line of shells, suffering only one casualty from their own fire.[62]
The 234th Brigade advanced with the leading companies of the 1/152nd Indian Infantry and the
While the advance guard consolidated its capture of the isolated trench line, the two main columns, formed by the 232nd and 234th Brigades, moved on to the main defensive works in front of Et Tire. This position was defended by the Ottoman Eighth Army's reserve division, the 46th Division commanded by Major Tiller. Here Tiller held an extensive fortified trench system surrounded by a network of cactus hedges, making a "formidable obstacle".[63]
As the 234th Brigade continued their advance with the 1/4th Battalion, Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry and the 123rd Outram's Rifles in artillery formation, two or three Ottoman batteries in the wadi south west of Miske fired on the 1/152nd Indian Infantry to within 60 yards (55 m). Shortly after 08:00 an Indian bayonet attack captured three 150mm howitzers, seven 77mm guns and their detachments, along with the trenches defending Et Tire.[57]
The 232nd Brigade (composed of the 4th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment, the 72nd Punjabis, the 2/3rd Gurkhas Rifles and the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry) advanced with their leading companies in line, the remainder in artillery formation: the 4th Battalion Wiltshire Regiment on the right and the 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles on the left. They had quickly captured the main front-line trenches under the creeping barrage before advancing to capture Miske at 07:00, supported by the South African Field Artillery Brigade, which had moved forward after completing its part of the creeping barrage. A firing line was established at the edge of Et Tire, after an advance of 5 miles (8.0 km) by the 4th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment, the 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles and the 72nd Punjabis, which had been brigade reserve. Here they were targeted by the defenders; every exposed infantryman was shot. This stymied attack was eventually reinforced by the 232nd Brigade's fourth battalion, the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry, some armoured cars and a cavalry squadron, which compelled the Ottoman defenders to evacuate Et Tire by 11:00 when Refet Bey's XXII Corps headquarters were captured.[63]
The retiring Ottoman force was pursued by armoured cars, while the reserve 233rd Brigade, comprising the remainder of the 5th Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry, the 3/3rd Gurkha Rifles, the 29th Punjabis and the 2/154th Indian Infantry, moved forward to Miske. The 75th Division suffered 518 casualties, 352 of whom were from the 232nd Brigade.[64]
3rd (Lahore) Division attack eastern sector
The objectives of the 3rd (Lahore) Division, consisting of the 7th, 8th and 9th Brigades, were to break through the Tabsor defences at Sabiye and advance east, capturing Jaljulye and the Railway Redoubt, before advancing towards
The 9th Brigade, consisting of the 2nd Battalion,
The 9th Brigade moved eastwards, crossing the railway 1 mile (1.6 km) north-west of Qalqilye at 09:00 with the 93rd Burma Infantry in the centre, the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry on their right, the 1/1st Gurkha Rifles on their left and the 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment in reserve. Although the Ottoman 20th Division had been "completely overrun", progress on the left was slowed by reserves from the Asia Corps west of 'Azzun. Jiyus was eventually captured by the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry and two companies from the 93rd Burma Infantry about nightfall, when two German officers and 18 other prisoners were captured.[67]
The attack by the 8th Brigade, consisting of the 1st Battalion
Meanwhile, the 7th Brigade advanced with the
Ottoman defenders' reports
By 05:45 telephone communication to the Ottoman front had been cut and five minutes later all German and Ottoman reserves had been ordered forward.[70]
At 08:50, Cevat's Eighth Army reported to Liman von Sanders, commander of the Yildirim Army Group at Nazareth, that its 7th Division (not to be confused with the 7th (Meerut) Division) was "out of the fight" and the 19th Division was under attack.[71]
Small groups of survivors from the 7th and 20th Divisions managed to continue fighting while retiring. They formed a
The 19th Division was forced to retreat towards Kefri Kasim and the XXII Corps (Eighth Army), threatened with encirclement, was in retreat towards Et Tire having lost most of its artillery. By 16:30 Cevat had been informed that Et Tire was captured and cut off from reports from his XXII Corps, he began to move his headquarters north at dusk.[74] Cevat said, "The enemy has broken through our lines in spite of our counter–attacks ... Without assistance operations are impossible".[75] A remnant from the 7th Division managed to establish a temporary divisional headquarters at Mesudiye that night.[76]
Liman von Sanders had no combat formations available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast, while in the Judean Hills the British Empire infantry attacks forced the Yildirim Army Group's two armies to retire.[77]
20 September
General Bulfin, commanding the XXI Corps, issued orders for the continuation of the battle on 20 September. The 7th (Meerut) Division's objectives were to attack and capture
7th (Meerut) Division
The 7th (Meerut) Division advanced in two columns. The 21st Brigade, on the right, supported by a mixed field-artillery brigade of two 4.5-inch howitzer and one 18-pounder batteries and a machine-gun company, advanced through Felamiye and
The 21st Brigade advanced along a track beyond Kufr Zibad that proved impassable for the artillery, which was sent back to Et Tire, where it came under orders of the 75th Division. Meanwhile, the 19th Brigade captured a small rearguard position at Kufr Sur before advancing under fire at 11:00 to a point 1,000 yards (910 m) from the village of Beit Lid. The brigade's Lewis guns forced the Ottoman or German battery supporting the rearguard to withdraw, but heavy machine-gun fire stopped the 125th Napier's Rifles from crossing the gully between Sefarin and Beit Lid. Without artillery support, an attack by the 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders, which began at 14:00, was held up by a strong rearguard position strengthened by cactus hedges 200 yards (180 m) from the village; they suffered 200 casualties during their attacks. After reinforcements from the 1st Guides (21st Brigade) arrived, the attack was renewed at 16:20. By 17:30, a battery of the VIII Mountain Artillery Brigade was able to get into position to cover an advance by the 28th Punjabis (19th Brigade) armed with grenades, which entered and cleared Beit Lid at 18:15. At 21:30 the 28th Brigade began their advance towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye.[82]
3rd (Lahore) Division
The 3rd (Lahore) Division's 7th and 8th Brigades began their advance at 05:00. The 7th Brigade's 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) began their advance towards
The 7th Brigade's 27th Punjabis followed the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) along the Wadi 'Azzun and the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) entered the village of 'Azzun at 08:10 where large quantities of stores were captured. The capture of 'Azzun, which had been the headquarters of the Asia Corps and the location of von Oppen's reserves, was claimed by the 47th Sikhs (8th Brigade) and the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) (7th Brigade).[84]
The 8th Brigade continued their advance without interruption to
The 9th Brigade made their way along the rocky Wadi Sir to Baqa, where they saw
German and Ottoman retreat
After being forced out of his headquarters at Nazareth on the morning of 20 September, Liman von Sanders
Position of XXI Corps
By the end of 20 September, the Eighth Ottoman Army had been pushed back out of the coastal Plain of Sharon and the Desert Mounted Corps was blocking the Seventh and what remained of the Eighth Armies' main lines of retreat northwards. The 60th Division held Tulkarm and Anebta, the 7th (Meerut) Division held the village of Beit Lid and controlled the crossroads at Deir Sheraf, while the 5th Light Horse Brigade had cut the Jenin railway south of Arrabe.[78][80][88] Both the 3rd (Lahore) and 7th (Meerut) Divisions had continued to force the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies' retreat.[89]
During 19 and 20 September, the XXI Corps had destroyed the right wing of the Ottoman front line, capturing 7,000 prisoners and 100 guns. Remnants of the Eighth Army which had escaped were captured the next day by Desert Mounted Corps at Jenin, in the Esdrealon Plain to the north of the Judean Hills. During two days of fighting the XXI Corps' total casualties were 3,378, of whom 446 were killed. They captured 12,000 prisoners, 149 guns and large quantities of ammunition and transport. With the exception of the Asia Corps, the whole Ottoman Eighth Army had been destroyed.[90]
My infantry yesterday captured Tulkeram, and are now pursuing the enemy eastwards to Nablus. This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh, and pushed thence rapidly south–eastwards, entered Beisan this evening, thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape.
— Letter from Allenby to Prince Feisal 20 September 1918[91]
Aftermath
The 28th Brigade, 7th (Meerut) Division advanced from Beit Lid at 21:30 on an overnight march towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye. They arrived at the 'Anebta road near Ramin at 01:30, and by 03:00 had advanced to capture the Masudiye Station along with an engine and 16 carriages, before continuing towards Sebustiye. During this march, a strong rearguard in the ruins of Samaria was attacked by the 51st and 53rd Sikhs. After working their way through an olive grove on the northwest side of the Central Powers' rearguard position, they attacked from the flank, with a platoon of 51st Sikhs gaining the crest from the southwest. The garrison of 181 German (or Ottoman) soldiers was captured with eight light and heavy machine guns. More than 400 sick were found in a hospital nearby.[92]
The 3rd (Lahore) Division continued its advance at 05:00, meeting some opposition near
Seventh Army retreat
The bulk of the Seventh Army had been retreating down the Wadi Fara road where guns and transport had to be abandoned when heavily bombed and machine-gunned from the air. This Army then turned north at 'Ain Shible, moving towards Beisan. During the night of 20/21 September a long column of retiring Ottoman forces was seen moving down the road from Nablus to Beisan, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Nablus. British and Australian aircraft subsequently bombed the column, at first just blocking one end of a defile, but later returning a number of times. Four hours later the area was covered with the wreckage of 90 guns, 50 lorries and more than 1,000 other vehicles. The Ottoman 53rd Division, which had managed to get down the Wadi Fara before it was blocked by the air attack, was captured by Chaytor's Force on 22 September
Eighth Army retreat
XXII Corps
The survivors from the Eighth Army's XXII Corps, which had retreated down the main Damascus road on 20 September, were captured by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin that night.[93]
At 15:00 on 21 September Cevat Pasa (also known as Jevat Pasa), the Eighth Army commander, left Nablus by car for Mustafa Kemal's Seventh Army headquarters with his chief of staff and some staff officers. It was the end of the Ottoman Eighth Army, the 20th and 21st Regiments existing only until that afternoon.[94]
Asia Corps
During the night of 20/21 September Liman von Sanders had ordered the 16th and 19th Division west of Nablus, where they made contact with von Oppen's Left Wing Force. The next morning von Oppen formed the remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions into one battalion with a rifle company, a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment, while the 701st Battalion and a cavalry squadron remained intact. At 10:00, von Oppen was informed the EEF was approaching Nablus and that the Wadi Fara road was blocked. As a result, he decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles (11 km) east-southeast of Nablus to the Jordan at Jisr ed Damieh, but this way was also found to have been cut. Von Oppen then ordered the Asia Corps to retreat without guns or baggage via Mount Ebal when they were attacked by British Empire artillery and suffered casualties. That night, von Oppen bivouacked at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas.[95]
Von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan the next day, with about 700 German and 1,300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions, when he learned it had already been captured. He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to
Notes
- ^ The 75th Division was formed from British Territorial and Indian battalions. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 319] The 75th Division had received the first Indian battalions in June 1917. ["75th Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 30 August 2012.]
- ^ Allenby had been informed after the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917 that "the 7th Indian Division would arrive from Mesopotamia" and on 1 April it relieved the 52nd Division which sailed for France, the "3rd Indian Division" arrived from Mesopotamia on 14 April 1918. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 293, 350, 413]
- ^ See the Battle of Nablus (1918) for a detailed description of this corps' and Chaytor's Force' operations in the eastern Judean Hills at the Jordan River fords from Jisr ed Damieh south, and then east to Es Salt and Amman.
- ^ Mention is made of four British infantry brigades being in reserve. [Erickson 2007 pp. 146 & 148]
- ^ Another estimate of this fighting strength was 26,000 infantry, 2,000 mounted troops and 372 guns. [Keogh 1955 p. 242] Yet another estimates that on a 15 miles (24 km) front extending from the Mediterranean coast westwards, the German and Ottoman force may have deployed 8,000 infantry supported by 130 guns, with the remaining 45 miles (72 km) of front defended by 24,000 German and Ottoman soldiers and 270 guns. [Wavell 1968 p. 203]
- ^ This Corps had held Beersheba at the time of the successful British Empire attack. [Erickson 2007 p. 146]
- ^ There has been no detailed analysis of the impact of the high number of machine guns on the army group's strength.
- ^ The only available German and Ottoman sources are Liman von Sanders' memoir and the Asia Corps' war diary. Ottoman army and corps records seem to have disappeared during their retreat. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 494–5]
- ^ This compares with one gun to every 10 yards (9.1 m) on the Western Front. [Bou 2009 p. 194]
- ^ These were probably Asia Corps troops. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 511]
- ^ Liman von Sanders was very critical of Jevad's intervention, which considerably weakened the Samakh position, but von Oppen would have had to break through the 4th Cavalry Division's line of piquets to get there. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 546]
References
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 190
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 207
- ^ a b Allenby letter to Wilson 24 July 1918 in Hughes 2004 pp. 168–9
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 183
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 121
- ^ Gullett 1941 pp. 653–4
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 662–5, 668–671
- ^ "53rd (Welsh) Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ Woodward 2006, p. 170
- ^ Perrett, pp.24–26
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 413, 417
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 670–1
- ^ Roy 2011, pp.170–171
- ^ a b Roy 2011, p. 174
- ^ Erickson, p. 126
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 182
- ^ Roy 2011, p. 170
- ^ a b Gullett 1919 pp. 25–6
- ^ a b c d Wavell 1968 p. 205
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 203
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 448
- ^ Woodward 2006 pp. 190–1
- ^ Blenkinsop 1925 pp. 236, 241
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 191
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 197–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 484
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II pp. 455–6
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 198–9
- ^ Maunsell 1926 p.213
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 232
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 216
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II pp. 455
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 198–9, 208–9
- ^ Preston 1921 pp. 200–1
- ^ Keogh 1955 pp. 242–3
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 470
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 470, 473–84
- ^ a b Erickson 2007 p. 132
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 231
- ^ Erickson 2001 pp. 132, 196
- ^ Keogh 1955 pp. 241–2
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 p. 195
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Sketch Map 30
- ^ a b Bou 2009 p. 192
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 142–3, 145
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 146
- ^ a b Erickson 2007 p. 145
- ^ Bou 2009 pp. 192–3, quoting Erickson 2001 pp. 195,198
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 133
- ^ Hill 1978 p. 165
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 485
- ^ Bou 2009 p. 194
- ^ Powles 1922 p. 239
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 206
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 470–1, 480–1, 485
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 224
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 481, 670
- ^ a b Bruce 2002 pp. 224–5
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 481–2
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 482–3, 514, 670
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 483–4
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 479–81
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 479–80
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 480–1, 671
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 476
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 477
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 477–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 478–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 476–7
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 198
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 148, 2001 198–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 495
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 148, 151, 2001 198–9
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 148–9, 151, 2001 198–9
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 148
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 151
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 199
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 504
- ^ Keogh 1955 p. 248
- ^ a b Bruce 2002 p. 232
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 507
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 507–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 505–6
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 506
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 506–7
- ^ a b Keogh 1955 p. 251
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 223
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 157
- ^ Blenkinsop 1925 p. 241
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 488, 509–10
- ^ in Hughes 2004 p. 180
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 509
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 512
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 151, 2001 p. 199
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 511–2
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 546
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Cutlack, Frederic Morley (1941). The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 220900299.
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