Battle of Utica (203 BC)
Battle of Utica | |||||||
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Part of the Second Punic War | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Rome | Carthage | ||||||
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The battle of Utica was fought in 203 BC between a
In the wake of its defeat in the
The Carthaginians and their
Hasdrubal fled 40 kilometres (25 mi) to Carthage with 2,500 survivors, pursued by Scipio. Syphax escaped with a few cavalry and regrouped 11 kilometres (7 mi) away. Over the following year the Carthaginians raised two more armies and each was defeated by Scipio, at the Great Plains and Zama. Carthage sued for peace and accepted a humiliating treaty, ending the war.
Background
First Punic War
The
From 236 BC
Second Punic War
Hannibal led a large Carthaginian army from Iberia, through
There was also extensive fighting in
Opposing forces
Roman
Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as
Carthaginian
Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city of
Prelude
In 206 BC Scipio left Iberia and returned to Italy.[46] He was denied the triumph he would normally have expected on the grounds that he had not occupied any of the magistracies of the cursus honorum, the sequential mixture of military and political administrative positions held by aspiring Roman politicians.[47] He was elected to the senior position of consul in early 205, despite not meeting the age requirement.[48] Scipio was already anticipating an invasion of North Africa and while still in Spain had been negotiating with the Numidian leaders Masinissa and Syphax. He failed to win over the latter, but made an ally of the former.[49]
Opinion was divided in Roman political circles as to whether an invasion of North Africa was excessively risky. Hannibal was still on Italian soil; there was the possibility of further Carthaginian invasions,[50] shortly to be realised when Mago Barca landed in Liguria;[51] the practical difficulties of an amphibious invasion and its logistical follow up were considerable; and when the Romans had invaded North Africa in 256 BC during the First Punic War they had been driven out with heavy losses, which had re-energised the Carthaginians.[52] Eventually a compromise was agreed: Scipio was given Sicily as his consular province,[53] which was the best location for the Romans to launch an invasion of the Carthaginian homeland from and then logistically support it, and permission to cross to Africa on his own judgement.[50] But Roman commitment was less than wholehearted, Scipio could not conscript troops for his consular army, as was usual, only call for volunteers.[51][54]
In 216 the survivors of the Roman defeat at Cannae were formed into two legions and sent to Sicily.[55] They still formed the main part of the garrison of Sicily, and Scipio used the many men who volunteered to increase the strength of each of these to an unprecedented 6,500.[30] The total number of men available to Scipio and how many of them travelled to Africa is unclear; the Roman historian Livy, writing 200 years later, gives totals for the invasion force of either 12,200, 17,600 or 35,000. Modern historians estimate a combat strength of 25,000–30,000, of whom more than 90% were infantry.[30][35] With up to half of the complement of his legions being fresh volunteers, and with no fighting having taken place on Sicily for the past five years, Scipio instigated a rigorous training regime. This extended from drills by individual centuries - the basic Roman army manoeuvre unit of 80 men - to exercises by the full army. This lasted for approximately a year. At the same time Scipio assembled a vast quantity of food and materiel, merchant ships to transport it and his troops, and warships to escort the transports.[56]
Also during 205 BC, 30 Roman ships under Scipio's second-in-command, the legate Gaius Laelius, raided North Africa around Hippo Regius, gathering large quantities of loot and many captives.[35][57] The Carthaginians initially believed this was the anticipated invasion by Scipio and his full invasion force; they hastily strengthened fortifications and raised troops – including some units made up of Carthaginian citizens. Reinforcements were sent to Mago in Liguria in an attempt to distract the Romans in Italy.[58] Meanwhile a succession war had broken out in Numidia between the Roman-supporting Masinissa and the Carthaginian-inclined Syphax. Laelius re-established contact with Masinissa during his raid. Masinissa expressed dismay regarding how long it was taking the Romans to complete their preparations and land in Africa.[59]
Invasion
In 204 BC, probably in June or July, the Roman army left Sicily in 400 transport ships, escorted by 40 galleys.[60] Three days later[61] they disembarked at Cape Farina 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of the large Carthaginian port of Utica.[60] The locals fled and Carthage's immediate response, a scouting party of 500 cavalry, was defeated with the loss of its commander and the general in overall charge of responding to the invasion. The area was pillaged and 8,000 captives were sent back to Sicily as slaves or hostages. Masinissa joined the Romans with either 200 or 2,000 men; the sources differ. A large fortified camp was established on a rocky peninsula near Ghar el-Melh[62][63] which was known as Castra Cornelia. Masinissa had been recently defeated by his Numidian rival Syphax, wounded and had his army scattered. Syphax had been persuaded to take firm action in support of Carthage by the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal Gisco and by his assertive new wife: Hasdrubal's daughter Sophonisba.[64]
Carthage sent a larger party to probe the Roman position, about 4,000 soldiers under a general called Hanno. His command of mixed Numidians and Carthaginian citizens based itself at Salaeca, 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the Romans, and did little scouting. Following a stratagem agreed with Scipio, Masinissa's cavalry raided Hanno's force who chased them off and then pursued them into a Roman ambush. Hanno and 1,000 of his men were killed or taken prisoner. The survivors were in turn pursued for 50 kilometres (30 mi), only 1,000 escaped. The Romans pillaged an ever-wider area, sending their loot and prisoners to Sicily in the ships bringing their supplies.[65]
Siege of Utica
Wanting a more permanent base and a port more resilient to the bad weather to be expected when winter came, Scipio
Scipio sent
Battle
Scipio drew out the negotiations with Syphax, eventually stating he was in broad agreement with the proposition, but that his senior officers were not yet convinced.[74] Scipio was acting in bad faith, as he had no intention of agreeing a peace treaty and the only purpose of the talks from his point of view was to gain militarily useful intelligence. By the diplomatic standards of the time, Scipio launching a surprise attack while in the midst of peace negotiations was ethically dubious.[70][75] Ancient Roman historians go to great lengths to excuse or explain his behaviour.[72][76]
In 203 BC, as the better weather of spring approached, Scipio made an announcement to his troops that he would shortly attempt to storm the defences of Utica and began obvious preparations to do so.[77] Simultaneously he was planning a night attack on both enemy camps. Local knowledge and careful scouting identified the routes least likely to cause problems at night, and Scipio briefed his senior officers carefully. On the night of the attack, a strong guard was left at Castra Cornelia. At around nine or ten in the evening two columns set out: one was commanded by Laelius, who had years of experience of operating under Scipio. This force consisted of about half the Roman attackers and was accompanied by the Numidians. Its target was Syphax's camp. Scipio led the balance of the Roman force against the Carthaginian camp. The total number of troops involved in the attack is not known.[74][78]
Thanks to the careful prior reconnoitring both forces reached the positions from which they were to start their attacks without problems, despite the inherent difficulty of night manoeuvres. Masinissa's Numidian cavalry positioned themselves in small groups so as to cover every route out of the two enemy camps. Laelius's column attacked first, storming the camp of Syphax's Numidians and concentrating on setting fire to as many of the reed huts as possible. The camp dissolved into chaos, many of its Numidian occupants oblivious of the Roman attack and thinking the barracks had caught fire accidentally; some were burned to death and others were trampled in the panic. Meanwhile, the well-briefed Romans were killing many who tried to escape and the Numidians fell upon those who got past the Romans.[79]
The Carthaginians heard the commotion and saw the blaze; some of them set off to help extinguish the fire. With pre-planned coordination Scipio's contingent then attacked. They cut down the Carthaginians heading for their ally's camp, stormed Hasdrubal's camp and attempted to set fire to the wooden housing. They were successful in this and the fire spread between the closely spaced barracks. Carthaginians rushed out into the dark and confusion, without armour or weapons, either trying to escape the flames or to fight the fire. The organised and prepared Romans cut them down.[79][80]
Polybius writes that Hasdrubal escaped from his burning camp with only 2,500 men. Syphax also escaped, with a few cavalry. Ancient sources claim that either 30,000 or 40,000 Carthaginians and Numidians were killed and either 2,400 or 5,000 captured; modern historians consider these to be greatly exaggerated. The following morning the Romans pursued, scattering the survivors, and capturing and sacking two Carthaginian towns before withdrawing.[78][81] Hasdrubal fled as far as Carthage, 40 kilometres (25 mi) away; Syphax rallied at the town of Abba, 11 kilometres (7 mi) from the scene of the disaster.[82]
Aftermath
With no Carthaginian field army to threaten them, the Romans pressed their siege of Utica and pillaged an extensive area of North Africa with strong and far-ranging raids. As well as gold and slaves the Romans accumulated large amounts of foodstuffs. This was added to the extensive stocks already built up by shipping grain from Sicily.
Scipio and Carthage entered into peace negotiations, while Carthage recalled both Hannibal and Mago from Italy.[86] The Roman Senate ratified a draft treaty, but because of mistrust and a surge in confidence when Hannibal arrived from Italy, Carthage repudiated it.[87] Hannibal was placed in command of another army, formed of his and Mago's veterans from Italy and newly raised troops from Africa, with 80 war elephants but few cavalry.[88] The decisive battle of Zama followed in October 202 BC.[89] After a prolonged fight the Carthaginian army collapsed; Hannibal was one of the few to escape the field.[89][90]
The peace treaty the Romans subsequently imposed on the Carthaginians stripped them of all of their overseas territories and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents[note 6] was to be paid over 50 years, hostages were taken. Carthage was forbidden to possess war elephants and its fleet was restricted to 10 warships. It was prohibited from waging war outside Africa, and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC. Henceforth it was clear Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome.[91] Scipio was awarded a triumph and received the agnomen "Africanus".[92]
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
- ^ Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic) talents, of approximately 26 kilograms (57 lb).[6][7] 3,200 talents was approximately 82,000 kg (81 long tons) of silver.[6]
- ^ 1,200 talents was approximately 30,000 kg (30 long tons) of silver.[6]
- ^ Publius Scipio was the bereaved son of the previous Roman co-commander in Iberia, also named Publius Scipio, and the nephew of the other co-commander, Gnaeus Scipio.[24]
- ^ Roman and Greek sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as "mercenaries", but the modern historian Adrian Goldsworthy describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements: some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms seconded to Carthage as part of formal treaties; some were from allied states fighting under their own leaders; many were volunteers from areas under Carthaginian control who were not Carthaginian citizens. (Carthaginian citizenship was largely reserved for inhabitants of the city of Carthage.)[39]
- ^ "Shock" troops are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before, or immediately upon, contact.[40]
- ^ 10,000 talents was approximately 269,000 kilograms (265 long tons) of silver.[6]
Citations
- ^ Coarelli 2002, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Etcheto 2012, pp. 274–278.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 82.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 157.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 97.
- ^ a b c d Lazenby 1996, p. 158.
- ^ Scullard 2006, p. 565.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 196.
- ^ Scullard 2006, p. 569.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 209, 212–213.
- ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 211.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 213.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 175.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 220.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 143–144.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 144.
- ^ Collins 1998, p. 13.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 145.
- ^ a b Ñaco del Hoyo 2015, p. 377.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 192–194.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 2.
- ^ a b Edwell 2015, p. 322.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 268, 298–299.
- ^ a b Edwell 2015, p. 323.
- ^ Zimmermann 2015, p. 292.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 277–285.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 303.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 23.
- ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2006, p. 287.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 48.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 22–25.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 50.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 227, 287.
- ^ a b c Carey 2007, p. 100.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 309.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, p. 9.
- ^ Scullard 2006, p. 494.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Jones 1987, p. 1.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 32–34.
- ^ Koon 2015, pp. 79–87.
- ^ Koon 2015, p. 93.
- ^ Rawlings 2015, p. 305.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 285.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 268.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 99.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 285–286.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 286.
- ^ a b Miles 2011, p. 306.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 286–287.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, p. 194.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, p. 195.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 218.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 287–288.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 288.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, pp. 198–199.
- ^ a b Carey 2007, p. 103.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 291.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 275.
- ^ Briscoe 2006, p. 63.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 290–292.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 292.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, p. 206.
- ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 292–293.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 207.
- ^ Hoyos 2015b, p. 203.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 294.
- ^ a b c Bagnall 1999, p. 277.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2015b, p. 204.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 278.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 293.
- ^ Edwell 2015, p. 332.
- ^ Lazenby 1998, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1998, p. 208.
- ^ a b Carey 2007, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 293–294.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 106.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 279.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 295.
- ^ a b c Hoyos 2015b, p. 205.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 282, 284.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 111.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 287–291.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 302.
- ^ a b Miles 2011, p. 315.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 118.
- ^ Carey 2007, p. 132.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 318.
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