Jerusalem

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Jerusalem
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Jerusalem (

At present, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas incorporated into Israel, while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was occupied and annexed by Jordan. Israel occupied East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into the city's municipality, together with additional surrounding territory.^{[note 6]} One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister and President, and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.^{[38][39][40][41]}

Etymology and names

Etymology

The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem";^[42][43] the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.^[44]

Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the

The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.^[52][53]

Ancient Egyptian sources

The

The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).^[61]

Oldest written mention of Jerusalem

One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE^[62][63] and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",^[64][65][66] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".^[67][68] An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.^[69]

In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.^[69]

Jebus, Zion, City of David

An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the

In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.

Salem

The

In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary",^[48][49] cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic.^[7] Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic,^[83][84] be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.^[85] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.^[86]

History

Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (

Prehistory

The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of

The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid- to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE.^[97] By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state,^[98] a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba.^[99] At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased.^[100] The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.^{[101][102][21]}

When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).^[108]

In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple.^[109] The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.^[110]

Biblical account

This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion,^[111] but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.^[112]

In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the

In 538 BCE, the

Many Jewish tombs from the

In 63 BCE,

Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the

Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two km² (3⁄4 sq mi) and had a population of 200,000.[145]^[134]

Late Antiquity

Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor

In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the

In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool,^[156][157] and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians.^[158] The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.^[159]

Middle Ages

Early Muslim period

After the

Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.[171] He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.^[172]

When the Arab armies under

A messianic Karaite movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.^[177]

Crusader/Ayyubid period

In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was

In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.^[180] Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.^[181] Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths, and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.^[182]

From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and al-Kamil, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, that ended the Sixth Crusade.^{[183][184][185][186][187]} The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.

In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.^[188] The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247.

Mamluk period

From 1260

The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.

In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.^[180] Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo.^[194] The English reference book Modern history or the present state of all nations, written in 1744, stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur".^[195]

The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.^[196] In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.^[196]

With the annexation of Jerusalem by forces under

• 
  Tower of David citadel and the Ottoman walls
• 
  Ben-Zakai synagogue, photo taken in 1893
• 
  Guesthouse in Mishkenot Sha'ananim, the first Jewish neighborhood built outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem (1860), on a hill directly across from Mount Zion

British Mandate (1917–1948)

In 1917 after the

From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).

United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
Jerusalem Corpus Separatum
Lifta Shu'fat JERUSALEM at-Tur al-Eizariya Abu Dis Silwan Sur Baher Umm Tuba Ramat Rahel Sharafat Beit Safafa Beit Jala BETHLEHEM Beit Sahur al-Maliha Ein Karim Deir Yassin Motza al-'Isawiya
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As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the

In contradiction to the Partition Plan, which envisioned a city separated from the Arab state and the Jewish state, Israel took control of the area which later would become West Jerusalem, along with major parts of the Arab territory allotted to the future Arab State; Jordan took control of East Jerusalem, along with the West Bank. The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.^[216][217] Arab residents of Katamon, Talbiya, and the German Colony were driven from their homes. By the time of the armistice that ended active fighting, Israel had control of 12 of Jerusalem's 15 Arab residential quarters. An estimated minimum of 30,000 people had become refugees.^[218][219]

The war of 1948 resulted in the division of Jerusalem, so that the

Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the centre of the city, passing close by Jaffa Gate on the western side of the old walled city. A crossing point was established at Mandelbaum Gate slightly to the north of the old walled city. Military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire.

After the establishment of the state of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital city.^[221] Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, and in 1953 declared it the "second capital" of Jordan.^{[215][222][223]} Only the United Kingdom and Pakistan formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a de facto basis.^[224] Some scholars argue that the view that Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation is dubious.^[225][226]

After 1948, since the

• 
  Israeli policemen meet a Jordanian Legionnaire near the Mandelbaum Gate (c. 1950)
• 
  King Hussein of Jordan flying over the Temple Mount in East Jerusalem when it was under Jordanian control, 1965

Israeli rule (1967–present)

In 1967, the

On 10 July, Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained to the UN Secretary General: "The term 'annexation' which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate. The steps that were taken [by Israel] relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem."[241] Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. Since 1967, new Jewish residential areas have mushroomed in the eastern sector, while no new Palestinian neighbourhoods have been created.^[242]

Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the

In 1993, the Oslo I Accord was signed between Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat. The agreement led to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority. The Jerusalem Governorate was notified by this authority.^[249] Only parts of few neighborhoods were allotted to the Palestinian Authority and this peace talks didn't solve the overall problem of Jerusalem.^[250]

The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. The Israeli Foreign Ministry disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.^[251][252] The final status of Jerusalem has been one of the most important areas of discord between Palestinian and Israeli negotiators for peace. Areas of discord have included whether the Palestinian flag can be raised over areas of Palestinian custodianship and the specificity of Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders.^[253]

Political status

From 1923 until 1948, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of Mandatory Palestine.^[254]

From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because

In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.^[256][257] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.^[258][259]

President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.^[260] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.^[261]

International status

While the international community regards East Jerusalem, including the entire Old City, as part of the

In 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable. Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading".^[267]

The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City^[268] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.^[269][270] Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine,^[271] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.^[272]

However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that "Jerusalem will never be divided".^[273] A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.^[274] A poll conducted by Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.^[275]

Jerusalem as capital of Israel

On 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal" and "sacred" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had "compelled" the Israeli leadership "to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv", while "for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only – Jerusalem the Eternal", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for "the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem."^[276] This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government—legislative, judicial, and executive—have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv.^[277][278] At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950,^[278] Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem.

In July 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as Basic Law. The law declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel.^[279] The Jerusalem Law was condemned by the international community, which did not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 478 on 20 August 1980, which declared that the Jerusalem Law is "a violation of international law", is "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". Member states were called upon to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem.^[280]

Following the resolution, 22 of the 24 countries that previously had their embassy in (West) Jerusalem relocated them in Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478.

In 1995, the United States Congress passed the

In April 2017, the Russian Foreign Ministry announced it viewed Western Jerusalem as Israel's capital in the context of UN-approved principles which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state.[297]^[298][299] On 15 December 2018, Australia officially recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but said their embassy in Tel Aviv would stay until a two-state resolution was settled.^[300] The decision was reversed in October 2022.^[301]

Government precinct and national institutions

The Kiryat HaLeom (national precinct) project is intended to house most government agencies and national cultural institutions. They are located in the Kiryat HaMemshala (government complex) in the Givat Ram neighbourhood. Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin. The city is home to the Knesset,^[302] the Supreme Court,^[303] the Bank of Israel, the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except for the Ministry of Defense (which is located in central Tel Aviv's HaKirya district) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (which is located in Rishon LeZion, in the wider Tel Aviv metropolitan area, near Beit Dagan).

Israeli settlements

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2023)

Since its capture in 1967, the Israeli government has built 12

The

The PLO's position is that East Jerusalem, as defined by the pre-1967 municipal boundaries, shall be the capital of Palestine and West Jerusalem the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city and with its own municipality. A joint development council would be responsible for coordinated development.^[307]

Some states, such as Russia^[308] and China,^[309] recognize the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem.^[310]

Palestinian offices and institutions

Jerusalem is home to many

Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.^[316] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.^[318]

The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at

A panorama of the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif or Al-Aqsa compound), including Al-Aqsa Mosque, and Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives

Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,490 ft).^[325] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.^[326] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.^[327]

The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west, the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus. Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.^[326] In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.^{[citation needed]}

Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient

Jerusalem is 60 km (37 mi)[329] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 km (22 mi)^[330] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighbouring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.^{[331][332][333]}

Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.

• 
  Astronauts' view of Jerusalem
• 
  Sunset aerial photograph of the Mount of Olives

Climate

The city is characterized by a

January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 °C (48.4 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 °C (75.6 °F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 537 mm (21 in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.^[334] Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.^[335][336] Jerusalem received over 30 cm (12 in) of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralyzed the city.^[335][336] A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours. With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from the Mediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.

The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F) on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) on 25 January 1907.

Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.^[337] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.^[337][338]

Demographics

Demographic history

Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000-year history. Since the 19th century, the

Most population data before 1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.^[344] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.

Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.

Current demographics

In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—63.7% were Jewish, 33.1% Muslim, and 2% Christian.^[346]

According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslim birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.^[347] Of the Jewish population, 200,000 live in East Jerusalem settlements which are considered illegal under international law.^[348]

In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former

In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)—similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[349]

In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.^[350] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers.^{[citation needed]} The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population.

In 2010, 61% of all Jewish children in Jerusalem studied in Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.^[351]

While some secular Jews leave Jerusalem for its relative lack of development and religious and political tensions, Jerusalem-born Palestinians cannot leave Jerusalem, or they lose their right to live in the city. Palestinians with a "Jerusalem resident status" are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides to its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections, but not to be voted in municipal elections, or to vote in national elections. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighbourhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Centre are available to residents.^[352]

Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority expanded city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.^[16]

Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate. In May 2012, it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate. The city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.

French Hill neighbourhood, Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.^[355]

At the end of 2008, the population of East Jerusalem was 456,300, comprising 60% of Jerusalem's residents. Of these, 195,500 (43%) were Jews, (comprising 40% of the Jewish population of Jerusalem as a whole), and 260,800 (57%) were Muslim (comprising 98% of the Muslim population of Jerusalem).^[356] In 2008, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics reported the number of Palestinians living in East Jerusalem was 208,000 according to a recently completed census.^[357]

Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious. Only 18% of Jewish residents are secular. In addition, Haredi Jews comprise 35% of the city's adult Jewish population. In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish women who work, 81%, exceeds the percentage of Jewish men who work, 70%.^[358]

Jerusalem had a population of 804,400 in 2011, of which Jews comprised 499,400 (62.1%), Muslims 281,100 (34.9%), Christians 14,700 (1.8%), and 9,000 (1.1%) were not classified by religion.^[17]

Jerusalem had a population of 882,700 in 2016, of which Jews comprised 536,600 (60.8%), Muslims 319,800 (36.2%), Christians 15,800 (1.8%), and 10,300 unclassified (1.2%).^[17]

Jerusalem had a population of 951,100 in 2020, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353.800 (37.2%), Christians 16.300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).^[17]

According to Peace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem have expanded by 60% under Donald Trump's term as U.S. president.^[359] Since 1991, Palestinians, who make up the majority of the residents in East Jerusalem, have only received 30% of the building permits.^[360]

Urban planning issues

Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.^[361] According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighbourhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.^[362] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological site in the 60% Arab neighbourhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City),^[363] and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla Cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).^[362][364]

Religious significance

Main article:

Night Journey

.

Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance for the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

.

Judaism

Further information: Jerusalem in Judaism

Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.^{[note 5][22]} Without counting its other names, Jerusalem appears in the Hebrew Bible 669 times.^[366] The first section, the Torah (Pentateuch), only mentions Moriah, but in later parts of the Bible, the city is mentioned explicitly.^[367] The Temple Mount, which was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple, is the holiest site in Judaism and the place Jews turn towards during prayer.^[368][369] The Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.^[370] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,^[371] and Arks within Jerusalem face the Holy of Holies.^[372] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.^[372][373] The Western Wall is a remnant of the Second Temple and the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.

Christianity

Further information: Jerusalem in Christianity

Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.^[374] Christianity reveres Jerusalem for its Old Testament history, and also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth^[375] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.^[376] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.^[377][378] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,^[379] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.^[380] The land occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past 2000 years.^{[380][381][382]} The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church in Christendom.^[383] It contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected.

Islam

Further information:

Jerusalem in Islam

See also: Islamization of Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in

Al-Walid several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to Heaven.^[395]

• 
  A view of the Temple Mount
• 
  The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall and the Kotel, i
• 
  The Church of the Holy Sepulchre
• 
  Al-Aqsa compound

  )
• 
  The Garden Tomb – a new holy site established by British Protestants in the 19th century

Economy

Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was far from the major ports of

Old City.^[349] In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East by Travel + Leisure magazine.^[397]

in 2013, 75% of the 3.5 million tourists to Israel visited Jerusalem.[398]

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centred in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.

Time Magazine picked Jerusalem as one of the five emerging tech hubs in the world, proclaiming that "The city has become a flourishing centre for biomed, cleantech, Internet/mobile startups, accelerators, investors and supporting service providers."^[401]

Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).^[402] During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.^[211] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure". By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.^[349] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%).

Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967, East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.

labour force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older—lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).^[349] Poverty remains a problem in the city as 37% of the families in Jerusalem lived in 2011 below the poverty line. According to a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Arabs in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012, up from 64% in 2006. While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, Ir Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.^[403]

The increasing number of educated Palestinians in Jerusalem has brought about positive economic changes.

Eizariya, engaging in manufacture of tires, food products and concretes.^[411]

High-tech industry is emerged among Palestinian society of Jerusalem.[412]^[413] In 2023, Israel opened a technology park in East Jerusalem, known as EasTech. Local Palestinian engineers are employed in the complex by multinational companies, some of which includes AT&T, Natural Intelligence, Nvidia, Unity and Synamedia. Station J, an innovation hub is located in Sheikh Jarrah, which is yet another tech hub for Palestinians in the city. Hani Alami, a Jerusalem-based Palestinian entrepreneur have setup a startup accelerator.^[414] As a part of Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, interaction between Israeli and Palestinian business community, also contributes in growth of Palestinian IT sector in the city.^[415][416]

Urban structure

High-rise construction

Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline. About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter. One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is a skyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories. Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.^[417][418]

A new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem. Under the plan, towers will line

underground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and tunnels. Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel. The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub. In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives.^{[419][420][421]} The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.^[422][423] In August 2015, the city council approved construction of a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed by Daniel Libeskind and Yigal Levi, in place of a rejected previous design by Libeskind; it is set to break ground by 2019.^[424]

New projects in Jerusalem

In 2021,

offices. The project also includes modern educational facilities, such as a school and a kindergarten, catering to the needs of residents.^[31] In addition to its focus on residential and commercial aspects, the Lana project emphasizes the improvement of infrastructure within the project and its surroundings.^[32] This involves the construction of 3 to 4 floors of underground parking to accommodate the residents' vehicles conveniently. Furthermore, there is a comprehensive plan to expand the road network surrounding the project, ensuring smooth transportation and accessibility for both residents and visitors. It is situated just 15 minutes away from the historic Old City of Jerusalem.^[28]

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Jerusalem

Public transport

Jerusalem Chords Bridge

Jerusalem is served by highly developed communication infrastructures, making it a leading logistics hub for Israel.

The

Jerusalem Central Bus Station. Arab neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem and routes between Jerusalem and locations in the West Bank are served by the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station, a transportation hub located near the Old City's Damascus Gate

.

Railway

The Jerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops. The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city centre to Mt. Herzl in the south.

Another work in progress

Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh.^[429][430]

ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.^[431][432] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.^[431]

Airport

In the past, Jerusalem was also served by the local

second intifada, Atarot Airport ceased operation in 2000. Today Jerusalem is served by Ben Gurion Airport, some 50 km (30 mi) northwest of the Jerusalem, on the route to Tel Aviv. The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem railway runs non-stop from Jerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station to the airport and began operation in 2018.^[435]

Australian businessman Kevin Bermeister proposed a masterplan of Jerusalem, which also includes the development of an airport for Jerusalem in the Jordan Valley, near Jericho.^[436] The airport is sought to be a joint Israeli-Palestinian airport. Palestinian Prime Minister Mohammad Shtayyeh have also appealed to Israeli authorities to redevelop the airport.^[437] In 2021, the Israeli government planned to redevelop Atarot Airport as a joint Israeli–Palestinian airport.^[438] The new Atarot Airport will include two separate Israeli and Palestinian terminals.

Education

Universities

Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in

Arabic

and English.

Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.^[439] The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.^[212] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,^[440] David Gross,^[441] and Daniel Kahneman.^[442] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.^[443] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.^[444] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. The Academy of the Hebrew Language are located in the Hebrew university in Givat Ram and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities located near the Presidents House.

The

public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.^[349] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.^[447]

Abu Jihad Museum of Al-Quds University

Master of Arts in Teaching degrees.^[450] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a 190,000 m² (47-acre) Abu Dis campus.^[448] Other campuses of AQU are located within city limits of Jerusalem. A campus of university in Sheikh Jarrah, which is one of the oldest faculties, is known as Hind Al Husseini College for Arts.^[451] It was named after Hind al-Husseini, a Palestinian activists known for rescuing orphaned survivors of Deir Yassin massacre and giving them shelter in a palace of her grandfather, which was converted into an orphanage and later a college, which is a part today's Al Quds University.^[452] A joint campus of AQU and Bard College is located in Beit Hanina. Bayt Mal Al Qods Acharif Agency, a Moroccan organization is constructing a new campus in same neighborhood.^[453]

Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance^[454] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,^[455][456] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.

Arab schools

Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.^[457]

Culture

Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its

Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.^[462] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education programme, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and includes the Holyland Model of Jerusalem, a scale-model of the city during the late Second Temple period.^[461] The Ticho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.^[463]

Next to the Israel Museum is the

national parks in and around Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.^[466][467]

The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near the

Righteous among the Nations.^[469]

The

Valley of Hinnom

and the Old City.

Jerusalem was declared the

Palestinian cinema is based in the city of Jerusalem.^[484]

The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[485] The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Centre (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects. The Jerusalem Centre for Middle Eastern Music and Dance^[486] is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.^[487] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.^[488] In 2008, the Tolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture by Czesław Dźwigaj, was erected on a hill between Jewish Armon HaNetziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.^[489]

Media

Jerusalem is the state broadcasting centre of Israel. The

God TV

, an international Christian television network is also based in the city.

Sports

See also: Beitar Jerusalem F.C., Hapoel Jerusalem B.C., and Jerusalem Marathon

The two most popular sports are football (soccer) and basketball.^[490] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games.^[491] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion seven times,^[492] Hapoel has won the Cup only once. Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded. Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second division Liga Leumit. Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 31,733^[493]

The most popular Palestinian football club is

West Bank Barrier.^[494][495]

In basketball,

top division. The club has won Israel's championship in 2015, the State Cup four times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.^[496]

The Jerusalem Marathon, established in 2011, is an international marathon race held annually in Jerusalem in the month of March. The full 42-kilometre race begins at the Knesset, passes through Mount Scopus and the Old City's Armenian Quarter, and concludes at Sacher Park. In 2012, the Jerusalem Marathon drew 15,000 runners, including 1,500 from fifty countries outside Israel.^{[497][498][499][500][501]}

A popular non-competitive sports event is the Jerusalem March, held annually during the Sukkot festival.

Twin towns – sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Israel

Jerusalem is twinned with:

• Ayabe, Japan^[502]
• Cusco, Peru^[503]
• Jersey City, United States^[504]
• New York City, United States^[505]
• Niterói, Brazil^[506]
• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil^[507]
• Salvador, Brazil^[508]

See also

• Greater Jerusalem
• List of people from Jerusalem
• List of places in Jerusalem
• List of songs about Jerusalem

Notes

1. PLO's Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD) often refer to East Jerusalem (rather than the whole of Jerusalem) as a future capital, and sometimes as the current capital. One of its 2010 documents, described as "for discussion purposes only", says that Palestine has a '"vision"' for a future in which "East Jerusalem ... shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel",^[2][3] and one of its 2013 documents refers to "Palestine's capital, East Jerusalem", and states that "Occupied East Jerusalem is the natural socio-economic and political center for the future Palestinian state", while also stating that "Jerusalem has always been and remains the political, administrative and spiritual heart of Palestine" and that "The Palestinian acceptance of the 1967 border, which includes East Jerusalem, is a painful compromise".^[4]
2. romanized: Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; Armenian: Երուսաղեմ, romanized
   : Erusałēm.
3. ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are there. The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.^[1] The UN and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv and its suburbs or suburbs of Jerusalem, such as Mevaseret Zion (see CIA Factbook and "Map of Israel" (PDF). (319 KB)) See Status of Jerusalem for more information.
4. ^ Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier,^[16] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.
5. ^ ^{a b} Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but some modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.^[18]
6. ^ West Jerusalem comprises approximately one third of the municipal area of Jerusalem, with East Jerusalem comprising approximately two-thirds. On the annexation of East Jerusalem, Israel also incorporated an area of the West Bank into the Jerusalem municipal area which represented more than ten times the area of East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule.^[35][36][37]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} 2003 Amended Basic Law Archived 11 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Basic Law of Palestine. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
2. ^ "Jerusalem Non-Paper" (PDF). PLO-NAD. June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
3. ^ "Statements and Speeches". nad-plo.org. p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014. This paper is for discussion purposes only. Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed. Palestinian vision for Jerusalem...Pursuant to our vision, East Jerusalem, as defined by its pre-1967 occupation municipal borders, shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city.
4. ^ "East Jerusalem today – Palestine's Capital: The 1967 border in Jerusalem and Israel's illegal policies on the ground" (PDF). PLO-Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD). August 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
5. ^ A-Z Guide to the Qur'an: A Must-have Reference to Understanding the Contents of the Islamic Holy Book by Mokhtar Stork (1999): "JERUSALEM: Referred to in Arabic as Baitul Muqaddas (The Holy House) or Baitul Maqdis (The House of the Sanctuary)".
6. ^ Pan-Islamism in India & Bengal by Mohammad Shah (2002), p. 63: "... protector of Mecca, Medina and Baitul Muqaddas, the sacred places of pilgrimage of the Muslim world"
7. ^
   OCLC 783142368
   .
8. ^ Smith, William (6 December 2017). "Donald Trump confirms US will recognise Jerusalem as capital of Israel". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
9. ^ "Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?". Moment Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2008. According to Eric H. Cline's tally in Jerusalem Besieged.
10. ^ ^{a b} Greenberg, Raphael; Mizrachi, Yonathan (10 September 2013). "From Shiloah to Silwan – A Visitor's Guide". Emek Shaveh. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
11. ISBN 978-1-62837-345-5. Archived
    from the original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
12. ISBN 978-0-312-44187-6
    .
13. ^
    ISBN 978-1-78283-904-0. Retrieved 30 May 2023. What wasn't corrected, though - and what, in retrospect, should have raised much more controversy than it did (it seems to have passed completely unremarked for the last 170-odd years) – was [Aldrich and Symonds's] map's
    labelling. Because here, newly arcing across the familiar quadrilateral of Jerusalem, are four double labels in bold capitals. At top left Haret En-Nassara and, beneath it, Christian Quarter; at bottom left Haret El-Arman and Armenian Quarter; at bottom centre Haret El-Yehud and Jews' Quarter; and at top right – the big innovation, covering perhaps half the city – Haret El-Muslimin and Mohammedan Quarter, had shown this before. Every map has shown it since. The idea, in 1841, of a Mohammedan (that is, Muslim) quarter of Jerusalem is bizarre. It's like a Catholic quarter of Rome. A Hindu quarter of Delhi. Nobody living there would conceive of the city in such a way. At that time, and for centuries before and decades after, Jerusalem was, if the term means anything at all, a Muslim city. Many people identified in other ways, but large numbers of Jerusalemites were Muslim and they lived all over the city. A Muslim quarter could only have been dreamt up by outsiders, searching for a handle on a place they barely understood, intent on asserting their own legitimacy among a hostile population, seeing what they wanted to see. Its only purpose could be to draw attention to what it excludes.
14. ^ "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
15. ^ "Selected Data on the Occasion of Jerusalem Day, 2022". cbs.gov.il. 26 May 2022. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
16. ^ ^{a b} Laub, Karin (2 December 2006). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} "Table III/9 – Population in Israel and in Jerusalem, by Religion, 1988 – 2020" (PDF). jerusaleminstitute.org.il. 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
18. ISBN 978-0-380-72633-2
    . [see footnote]
19. ^ Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14.
20. ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
21. ^ ^{a b} Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
22. ^ ^{a b} Since the 10th century BCE:
    • "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when
      ISBN 978-0-520-22092-8
    • "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city, and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it.... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6.
      ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
    • "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330.
      ISBN 978-0-02-864410-3
    • "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction – And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1.
      ISBN 978-90-411-8843-4
23. ^ "Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem". Anti-Defamation League. 2007. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2007. The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation."
24. ^ Reinoud Oosting, The Role of Zion/Jerusalem in Isaiah 40–55: A Corpus-Linguistic Approach, p. 117, at Google Books Brill 2012 pp. 117–18. Isaiah 48:2; 51:1; Nehemiah 11:1, 18; cf. Joel 4:17: Daniel 5:24. The Isaiah section where they occur belong to deutero-Isaiah.
25. ^ Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, p. 306, at Google Books The 'holiness' (qodesh) arises from the temple in its midst, the root q-d-š referring to a sanctuary. The concept is attested in Mesopotamian literature, and the epithet may serve to distinguish Babylon, the city of exiles, from the city of the Temple, to where they are enjoined to return.
26. ^ Golb, Norman (1997). "Karen Armstrong's Jerusalem – One City, Three Faiths". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013. The available texts of antiquity indicate that the concept was created by one or more personalities among the Jewish spiritual leadership, and that this occurred no later than the 6th century B.C.
27. ^ ^{a b} Isaiah 52:1 πόλις ἡ ἁγία.
28. ^ ^{a b} Joseph T. Lienhard, The Bible, the Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology, Liturgical Press, 1995 pp. 65–66: 'The Septuagint is a Jewish translation and was also used in the synagogue. But at the end of the first century C.E. many Jews ceased to use the Septuagint because the early Christians had adopted it as their own translation, and it began to be considered a Christian translation.'
29. ^ ^{a b} Third-holiest city in Islam:
    • ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0
      . The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
    • Brown, Leon Carl (2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11.
      ISBN 978-0-231-12038-8
      . The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
    • Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14.
      ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
      . Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
30. ^ Middle East peace plans by Willard A. Beling: "The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina".
31. ^ ^{a b} Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann, eds. (1986). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press.
32. ^ ^{a b} Quran 17:1–3
33. ISBN 978-0-521-52575-6
    . Retrieved 9 June 2008.
34. ^ Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips (ed.). A Will to Survive – Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade. about 91 hectares (225 acres)
35. ^ Walid Khalidi (1996) Islam, the West and Jerusalem. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies & Center for Muslim–Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, quotes the breakdown as follows: West Jerusalem in 1948: 16,261 dunums (14%); West Jerusalem added in 1967: 23,000 dunums (20%); East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums (5%); West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000 dunums (61%)
36. JSTOR 2538120
    . West Jerusalem: 35%; East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 4%; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 59%
37. ISBN 978-0-7837-2978-7
    . East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000
38. ^ "Resolution 298 September 25, 1971". United Nations. 25 September 1971. Archived from the original on 19 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2018. Recalling its resolutions... concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem,...
39. ^ "The status of Jerusalem" (PDF). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2019. East Jerusalem has been considered, by both the General Assembly and the Security Council, as part of the occupied Palestinian territory.
40. ^ "Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
41. ^ "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes". BBC News. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018. East Jerusalem is regarded as occupied Palestinian territory by the international community, but Israel says it is part of its territory.
42. ^ Meir Ben-Dov, Historical Atlas of Jerusalem, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23.
43. ^
    ISBN 978-1-58595-365-3
    . Retrieved 17 December 2011.
44. ^ G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 48–49 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 45–46
45. ISBN 978-0-00-637531-9. Archived from the original
    on 10 March 2003. Retrieved 26 April 2007. The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem–Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).
46. ^ Ringgren, H., Die Religionen des Alten Orients (Göttingen, 1979), 212.
47. ISBN 978-1-4102-1725-7
    . Retrieved 17 December 2011.
48. ^
    ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. Archived
    from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
49. ^ ^{a b} Denise DeGarmo (9 September 2011). "Abode of Peace?". Wandering Thoughts. Center for Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
50. ^ Marten H. Wouldstra, The Book of Joshua, William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2
51. ASIN B0000CO4LE
    . Retrieved 17 December 2011.
52. ISBN 978-0-405-10298-1
    . A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word
53. ISBN 978-0-7905-2935-6. The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities (see Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70, Volume 1, p. 251, at Google Books
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54. ^ Sethe, Kurt (1926) "Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Völker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefäßscherben des Mittleren Reiches nach den Originalen im Berliner Museum herausgegeben und erklärt" in Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1926 issue, philosophisch-historische Klasse, number 5, page 53
55. ^ Hoch, James E (1994). Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
56. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4. Archived
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57. ^ G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348
58. ISBN 978-1-58983-066-0. Archived
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59. ^ Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived from the original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
60. ^ "The El Amarna Letters from Canaan". TAU.ac.il. Archived from the original on 14 February 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
61. ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Volume I: The Akedah Archived 13 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
62. ^ Writing, Literacy, and Textual Transmission: The Production of Literary by Jessica N. Whisenant p. 323
63. ^ King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities by Francesca Stavrakopoulou p. 98
64. ^ Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature by Susan Niditch p. 48
65. ^ The Mountain of the Lord by Benyamin Mazar p. 60
66. ^ Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions by T. G Crawford p. 137
67. ^ Joseph Naveh (2001). "Hebrew Graffiti from the First Temple Period". Israel Exploration Journal. 51 (2): 194–207.
68. ^ Discovering the World of the Bible by LaMar C. Berrett p. 178
69. ^
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70. ^ Judges 19:10: יְב֔וּס הִ֖יא יְרוּשָׁלִָ֑ם: "Jebus, it [is] Jerusalem"
71. ^ "Bible, King James Version". umich.edu. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
72. ^ The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1, p. 113, at Google Books, p. 113
73. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0. Archived
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74. ISBN 978-0-521-01683-4
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76. ^ Genesis 14:18
77. ^ E.g., Jubilees 1:30Template:Bibleverse with invalid book, the Septuagint version of Jer 48:5 (as Συχὲμ Sukhèm) and possibly the Masoretic text of Genesis 33:18 (see KJV and the margin translation of the Revised Version).
78. ^ E.g., the Vulgate and Peshitta versions. J.A. Emerton, "The site of Salem: the City of Melchizedek (Genesis xiv 18)," pp. 45–72 of Studies in the Pentateuch ed. by J.A. Emerton, vol. 41 of Supplements to Vetus Testamentum (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990) ("Emerton"), p. 45. See also John 3:23 where "Salim" or "Sylem" (Συχὲμ) is said to be near Ænon, thought to be in the valley of Mount Ebal, one of two mountains in the vicinity of Nablus.
79. Pseudo-Jonathan and Neofiti I
    . Emerton, p. 45.
80. ^ Genesis 12:6–7 (where Abram built an altar), Genesis 33:18–20, Deuteronomy 11:29 & 28:11, Joshua 8:33, 1 Kings 12. Emerton, p. 63.
81. ^ Paul Winter, "Note on Salem – Jerusalem", Novum Testamentum, vol. 2, pp. 151–152 (1957).
82. ^ Raymond Hayward. "Melchizedek as Priest of the Jerusalem Temple in Talmud, Midrash, and Targum" (PDF). The Temple Studies Group. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
83. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: ﻳﺸﻮﻉ 10:1 - Ketab El Hayat". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
84. ^ أعمال الرسل 12:1 فرَجَعَ الرّسُلُ إلى أُورُشليمَ مِنَ الجبَلِ الذي يُقالُ لَه جبَلُ الزّيتونِ، وهوَ قَريبٌ مِنْ أُورُشليمَ على مَسيرةِ سَبتٍ مِنها. | الترجمة العربية المشتركة (المشتركة) | Download The Bible App Now (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
85. ^ "The Official Website of Jerusalem". Municipality of Jerusalem. 19 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007.
86. ^ Sonbol, Amira (1996). Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History. p. 133.
87. ^ "Israeli Archaeologists Discover 7,000-Year-Old Settlement". The New York Times. 17 February 2016. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
88. ^ "No city in the world, not even Athens or Rome, ever played as great a role in the life of a nation for so long a time, as Jerusalem has done in the life of the Jewish people." David Ben-Gurion, 1947
89. ^ "For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be 'Jerusalem.'" Teddy Kollek (DC: Washington Institute For Near East Policy, 1990), pp. 19–20.
90. ISBN 978-90-411-1009-1
    . Palestine's claim to Jerusalem is founded on the longtime status of the Palestinian Arabs as the majority population of Palestine. On that basis the Palestinians claim sovereignty over all of Palestine. including Jerusalem, both East and West. The Palestinians claim descent from the Canaanites, the earliest recorded inhabitants of Palestine. Although political control changed hands many times through history, this population, which was Arabized by the Arab conquest of the seventh century A.D., remained into the twentieth century.
91. Canaanites before them. Acutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history, the Palestinians saw themselves as the heirs of its rich associations." Walid Khalidi
    , 1984, Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Institute for Palestine Studies
92. ISBN 978-1-136-85098-1. Archived
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93. ^ Eric H. Cline. "How Jews and Arabs Use (and Misuse) the History of Jerusalem to Score Points". Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
94. ^ Eli E. Hertz. "One Nation's Capital Throughout History" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
95. ISBN 978-0-8264-1316-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2018.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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96. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4
    . 1. Ceramic evidence indicates some occupation of Ophel as early as early as the Chalcolithic period. 2. Remains of a building witness to a permanent settlement on Ophel during the early centuries (ca. 3000–2800 B.C.E.) of the Early Bronze Age
97. ^ Nadav Naʼaman, Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 180.
98. ^ Jane M. Cahill, 'Jerusalem at the time of the United Monarchy', in Andrew G. Vaughn, Ann E. Killebrew (eds.) Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, Society of Biblical Literature, 2003 p. 33.
99. ^ Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts, Simon and Schuster 2002 p. 239.
100. ^ ^{a b} Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, Keys to Jerusalem: Collected Essays, Oxford University Press, 2012 pp. 5–6.
101. ^ Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14
102. ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
103. ^ Robb Andrew Young, Hezekiah in History and Tradition, p. 49.
104. ^ "The Broad Wall – Jerusalem Attractions, Israel". GoJerusalem.com. 3 December 2012. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
105. ^ "Department of Archaeology – Silwan, Jerusalem: The Survey of the Iron Age Necropolis". TAU.ac.il. Archived from the original on 29 May 2009. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
106. ^ "The Israelite Tower". The Jewish Quarter. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
107. ^ Matti Friedman (6 September 2012). "Cistern dated to First Temple period found in Jerusalem". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
108. OCLC 368020822
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109. OCLC 44509358. Archived
     from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2022. Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied.
110. ^ Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah I (930–722)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
111. ^ K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, Continuum Publishing, 2002 p. 78.
112. ^ Ann Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E,, Society of Biblical Literature, 2005, p. 152
113. ^ Joshua 18:28
114. ^ Nadav Na'aman Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 183.
115. ^ Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed, p. 238.
116. ^ Erlanger, Steven (5 August 2005). "King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2007.
117. ^ Finkelstein & Mazar (2007), pp. 113, 125–28, 165, 174 Archived 30 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 30 November 2022.
118. ^ 1 Samuel 31:1–13:2 Samuel 5:4–5; Finkelstein, Silberman, op.cit. p. 20.
119. ^
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120. ^ Merling, David (26 August 1993). "Where is the Ark of the Covenant?". Andrews University. Archived from the original on 17 September 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
121. ^ Richard A. Freund, Digging Through the Bible: Modern Archaeology and the Ancient Bible, p. 9, at Google Books, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009, p. 9.
122. ^ Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah (930–586)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
123. ^ "Ezra 1:1–4; 6:1–5". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
124. S2CID 170508879. Archived
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125. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3
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126. ^ Zank, Michael. "Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539–323)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
127. S2CID 147434998
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128. ^ "Nehemiah 1:3; 2:1–8". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
129. ^ "Ossuary bearing an Aramaic inscription reading, "Simon, builder of the Temple" – Unknown". Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
130. ^ "Archaeological Sites in Israel-Jerusalem- Burial Sites and Tombs of the Second Temple Period". GxMSDev. Archived from the original on 31 July 2016.
131. ISBN 978-965-229-254-4
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132. ^ Hannah M. Cotton; Leah Di Segni; Werner Eck; Benjamin Isaac; Alla Kushnir-Stein; Haggai Misgav; Jonathan Price; Israel Roll; Ada Yardeni, eds. (2010). Jerusalem, Part 1: 1–704. Walter de Gruyter. p. 79. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
133. ISBN 978-0-88125-371-9
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135. ^ Zank, Michael. "The Temple Mount". Boston University. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
136. ISBN 978-0-06-061629-8. from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling Herod Archelaus
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137. ^
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     from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2022. Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins. In around 130 CE, the Roman emperor Hadrian founded a new city in place of Herodian Jerusalem next to the military camp. He honored the city with the status of a colony and named it Aelia Capitolina.
138. OCLC 1016414322
     . The capitulation of the rest of Jerusalem was rapid. Those parts of the lower city already under Roman control were deliberately set on fire. The erection of new towers to break down the walls of the upper city was completed on 7 Elul (in mid-August), and the troops forced their way in. By 8 Elul the whole city was in Roman hands—and in ruins. In recompense for the ferocious fighting they had been required to endure, the soldiers were given free rein to loot and kill, until eventually Titus ordered that the city be razed to the ground, "leaving only the loftiest of the towers, Phasael, Hippicus and Mariamme, and the portion of the wall enclosing the city on the west: the latter as an encampment for the garrison that was to remain, and the towers to indicate to posterity the nature of the city and of the strong defences which had yet yielded to Roman prowess. All the rest of the wall encompassing the city was so completely levelled to the ground as to leave future visitors to the spot no ground for believing that it had ever been inhabited."
139. S2CID 164199980. Archived
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140. OCLC 787865898. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2022. Scholarly attention has focused primarily on the texts of Josephus to recapture Jewish opinion in the years after the failure and suppression of the first revolt which ended, excepting the reduction of a few fortresses, with the burning of the temple and razing of Jerusalem.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
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141. OCLC 988856967. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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142. ^ Josephus, Jewish War, 7:1:1
143. ISBN 978-0-307-28050-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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144. ISBN 978-0-02-865931-2
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145. ^ ^{a b} Lehmann, Clayton Miles (22 February 2007). "Palestine: History". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
146. ^ Elizabeth Speller, Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire, p. 218, at Google Books, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218
147. ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles. "Palestine: People and Places". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
148. ISBN 978-3-16-148076-8. Archived
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149. ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E". In Hershel Shanks (ed.). Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society. p. 196.
150. ^ Emily Jane Hunt, Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian, p. 7, at Google Books, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7
151. ^ E. Mary Smallwood The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian : a study in political relations, p. 460, at Google Books Brill, 1981, p. 460.
152. ^ Klein, E. (2010), "The Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period", In: E. Baruch., A. Levy-Reifer and A. Faust (eds.), New Studies on Jerusalem, Vol. 16. Ramat-Gan, p. 325-327 (Hebrew). "Following the failure of the revolt, the process of the Roman administration's takeover of the city's lands and its surroundings was completed [...] The historical sources confirm that Hadrian gave the city the status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, a title that was awarded almost exclusively to cities where veterans and their families lived. [...] The totality of the data allows us to conclude that a significant component of the population of Ilia Capitolina is the veterans of the Roman army and settlers from the west of the empire."
153. ^ Zank, Michael. "Byzantian Jerusalem". Boston University. Archived from the original on 4 January 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
154. ^ Gideon Avni, The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach, p. 144, at Google Books, Oxford University Press 2014 p. 144.
155. ^ Conybeare, Frederick C. (1910). The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD. English Historical Review 25. pp. 502–17.
156. ^ Hidden Treasures in Jerusalem Archived 6 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, the Jerusalem Tourism Authority
157. ^ Jerusalem blessed, Jerusalem cursed: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Holy City from David's time to our own. By Thomas A. Idinopulos, I.R. Dee, 1991, p. 152
158. ^ Horowitz, Elliot. "Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614". Jewish Social Studies. Archived from the original on 26 May 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
159. ^ Rodney Aist, The Christian Topography of Early Islamic Jerusalem, Brepols Publishers, 2009 p. 56: 'Persian control of Jerusalem lasted from 614 to 629'.
160. ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (29 January 2001). "Arafat's Gift". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
161. ISBN 9780674659629. Archived
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162. ISBN 978-965-220-348-9
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163. ^ Ben-Dov, M. Historical Atlas of Jerusalem. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171
164. ^ Linquist, J.M., The Temple of Jerusalem, Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184
165. ^ Grabar, Oleg. The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem. With Contributions by Mohammad al-Asad, Abeer Audeh, Said Nuseibeh. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 112
166. ^ In the Lands of the Prophet, Time-Life, p. 29
167. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Archived
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168. ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 7.
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171. Eutychius, Michael the Syrian and Elias of Nisibin. The many sources conserving the story are summarized in Hugues Vincent, F. M. Abel, Jérusalem Nouvelle Archived 27 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine
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172. ^ ^{a b} Shalem, Yisrael. "The Early Arab Period – 638–1099". Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar-Ilan University. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2008.
173. ^ Rivka Gonen, Contested holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, Ktav Publishing House, 2003, p. 85; The History of al-Tabari, vol. XII, Albany: State University of New York Press 2007, pp. 194–95.
174. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
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175. ^ Zank, Michael. "Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
176. ^ Islam encyclopaedia Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in Turkish) Vol. 26 pp. 323–27
177. ^ David E. Sklare, 'Yūsuf al-Bașīr: Theological Aspects of his Halakhic Works,' in Daniel Frank (ed.) The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society & Identity, E. J. Brill, 1995, pp. 249–270. p. 249. They were known as avelei șion (Mourners of Zion) or Shoshanim (Lilies(among the thorns))
178. ^ Adrian J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, Routledge 2001, pp. 14, 35.
179. ^ Hull, Michael D. (June 1999). "First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem". Military History. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007.
180. ^ ^{a b} "Main Events in the History of Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. The CenturyOne Foundation. 2003. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
181. ^ Adrian J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, Routledge 2001, pp. 16, 19
182. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. Archived
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183. ISBN 978-0-253-20551-3. Archived
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184. ISBN 978-0-521-39038-5. Archived
     from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014. During the period of Christian control of Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244 ...
185. ISBN 978-0-226-89422-5. Archived
     from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014. (footnote 19): It is perhaps worth noting that the same sultan, al-Malik al-Kamil, was later involved in the negotiations with Emperor Frederick II that briefly reestablished Latin control in Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244.
186. ISBN 978-1-137-35838-7. Archived
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187. ISBN 978-1-84519-395-9. Retrieved 30 May 2014. (Introduction by Moshe Ma'oz) ... When the Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem (AD 1099–1187, 1229–1244) ...^{[permanent dead link}
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188. ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 25.
189. ^
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190. ^ Michael Avi-Yonah, A History of Israel and the Holy Land Archived 27 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, A&C Black, 2003 p. 279.
191. ^ Hunt Janin, Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE, McFarland, 2002 p. 120.
192. ^ "Firuzabadi's al-Qamus al-Muhit". Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
193. ^
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194. ^ Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989
195. ^ Salmon, Thomas (1744). Modern history or the present state of all nations. p. 461. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
196. ^
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197. ^ ^{a b c} Gilbert (1978), p. 37.
198. ^ 1834 Palestinian Arab Revolt
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199. ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica, Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp. 304–06
200. ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 35.
201. ^ Eylon, Lili (April 1999). "Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period". Focus on Israel. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
202. ^ Ellen Clare Miller, Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'
203. ISBN 978-0-231-10695-5
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207. ^ Elisha Efrat and Allen G. Noble, Planning Jerusalem Archived 6 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Geographical Review, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 387–404: "Modern planning began only after the British conquest of Palestine in World War I… In 1918 an engineer from Alexandria, William McLean, was commissioned to draft the first city plan… These provisions… caused the city to develop mainly to the west and southwest because of the restrictions on construction in the Old City and its immediate environs and the desire to retain the eastern skyline… McLean wanted Jerusalem to expand to the north, west, and south, with little development to the east because of climatic and topographical limitations. Thus almost from the onset of British colonial rule, development was encouraged in a generally westward direction, and this bias ultimately produced the initial contrasts that distinguished the eastern and western sectors of the city. McLean also adopted the principle of urban dispersal, and he proposed two main axes, one to the northwest and the other to the southwest of the Old City. His guidelines were repeated in most of the subsequent city plans."
208. ISBN 978-0-8050-6884-9
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343. ISBN 978-1-78283-904-0. Retrieved 30 May 2023. But it may not have been Aldrich and Symonds. Below the frame of their map, printed in italic script, a single line notes that 'The Writing' had been added by 'the Revd. G. Williams' and 'the Revd. Robert Willis'… Some sources suggest [Williams] arrived before [Michael] Alexander, in 1841. If so, did he meet Aldrich and Symonds? We don't know. But Williams became their champion, defending them when the Haram inaccuracy came up and then publishing their work. The survey the two Royal Engineers did was not intended for commercial release (Aldrich had originally been sent to Syria under 'secret service'), and it was several years before their military plan of Jerusalem came to public attention, published first in 1845 by their senior officer Alderson in plain form, without most of the detail and labelling, and then in full in 1849, in the second edition of Williams's book The Holy City. Did Aldrich and/or Symonds invent the idea of four quarters in Jerusalem? It's possible, but they were military surveyors, not scholars. It seems more likely they spent their very short stay producing a usable street-plan for their superior officers, without necessarily getting wrapped up in details of names and places. The 1845 publication, shorn of street names, quarter labels and other detail, suggests that… Compounding his anachronisms, and perhaps with an urge to reproduce Roman urban design in this new context, Williams writes how two main streets, north-south and east-west, 'divide Jerusalem into four quarters.' Then the crucial line: 'The subdivisions of the streets and quarters are numerous, but unimportant.' Historians will, I hope, be able to delve more deeply into Williams's work, but for me, this is evidence enough. For almost two hundred years, virtually the entire world has accepted the ill-informed, dismissive judgementalism of a jejune Old Etonian missionary as representing enduring fact about the social make-up of Jerusalem. It's shameful… With Britain's increased standing in Palestine after 1840, and the growth of interest in biblical archaeology that was to become an obsession a few decades later, it was vital for the Protestant missionaries to establish boundaries in Jerusalem… Williams spread his ideas around. Ernst Gustav Schultz, who came to Jerusalem in 1842 as Prussian vice-consul, writes in his 1845 book Jerusalem: Eine Vorlesung ('A Lecture'): 'It is with sincere gratitude I must mention that, on my arrival in Jerusalem, Mr Williams ... willingly alerted me to the important information that he [and] another young Anglican clergyman, Mr Rolands, had discovered about the topography of [Jerusalem].' Later come the lines: 'Let us now divide the city into quarters,' and, after mentioning Jews and Christians, 'All the rest of the city is the Mohammedan Quarter.' Included was a map, drawn by Heinrich Kiepert
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373. ^ The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch (94:1) – "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."
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375. King James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke
     2:22)
376. King James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark
     11:15)
377. ISBN 978-0-415-23000-1
     . The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings.
378. ISBN 978-0-8091-2319-3
     .
379. King James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John
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382. ISBN 978-1-885211-56-9
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383. ISBN 978-1-4408-5462-0
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384. ISBN 978-0-275-98758-9
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389. 17
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Bibliography

• Gilbert, Martin (1978). Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
• Kellerman, Aharon (1993). Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century. State University of New York Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7914-1295-4
  .

Further reading

• Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem.
  ISBN 978-0-674-80136-3
  .
• Cline, Eric (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  ISBN 978-0-472-11313-2
  .
• Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem!. New York: Simon & Schuster
  ISBN 978-0-671-66241-7
  .
• Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City. International Publishing Company J-M, Ltd.
  ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7
  .
• ISBN 978-3-7003-0278-0
  .
• The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006
• Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-300-09730-6
  .
• "Keys to Jerusalem: A Brief Overview", The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center, Amman, Jordan, 2010.
• ISBN 978-0-297-85265-0
  .
• Young, Robb A (2012) Hezekiah in History and Tradition Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing, Netherlands.
• Klein, Konstantin M.: Wienand, Johannes (2022) (eds.): City of Caesar, City of God: Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity. De Gruyter, Berlin 2022,
  doi:10.1515/9783110718447
  .
• John D. Hosler, _Jerusalem Falls: Seven Centuries of War and Peace_ (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022),
  ISBN 978-0-300-25514-0

External links

• Official website of the Jerusalem Municipality
• What makes Jerusalem so holy? BBC
• The Status of Jerusalem. United Nations document related to the dispute over the city
• Jerusalem Virtual Library, joint project by Al-Quds University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• Official website of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the city's foremost institution of higher education
• Official website of Al-Quds University, the only Palestinian university in Jerusalem
• Geographic data related to Jerusalem at OpenStreetMap
• Jerusalem at
  Curlie