Benazir Bhutto
Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto | |||||||||||||||
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بينظير بُھٹو | |||||||||||||||
Muhammad Khan Junejo | |||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (caretaker) Nawaz Sharif | ||||||||||||||
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Personal details | |||||||||||||||
Born | Federal Capital Territory, Pakistan | 21 June 1953||||||||||||||
Died | 27 December 2007 Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan | (aged 54)||||||||||||||
Manner of death | Assassination | ||||||||||||||
Resting place | Bhutto family mausoleum | ||||||||||||||
Political party | Pakistan People's Party | ||||||||||||||
Spouse | |||||||||||||||
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Children | |||||||||||||||
Parent(s) | Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Nusrat Bhutto | ||||||||||||||
Education | |||||||||||||||
Signature | |||||||||||||||
Nickname(s) | BB Iron Lady | ||||||||||||||
Benazir Bhutto
Of mixed
After the IJI government of Prime Minister
Bhutto was a controversial figure who remains divisive. She was often criticised as being politically inexperienced, was accused of being corrupt, and faced much opposition from Pakistan's Islamist lobby for her secularist and modernising agenda. In the early years of her career, she was nevertheless domestically popular and also attracted support from the international community, seen as a champion of democracy. Posthumously, she came to be regarded as an icon for women's rights due to her political success in a male-dominated society.
Early life
Childhood: 1953–1968
Bhutto was born at Pinto's Nursing Home on 21 June 1953 in
Benazir, in her autobiography "Daughter of the East", said "The diaries of one of our ancestors, giving the family details, were washed away in a great flood in my great-grandfather's time. But as children, we were told we were either descended from the Rajputs...or from the Arabs who entered India through our home province of Sindh in AD 712."
Some say that Benazir Bhutto is descended from the Arains, a Muslim tribe of Punjab, who have a subclan called Bhutta, and they also claim to be descended from the Arabs who entered India in AD 712 while others say that Benazir is descended from the Rajputs.[11]
The couple had married in September 1951,[12] and Benazir was their first child.[13] She was given the name of an aunt who had died young.[14] The Bhuttos' three younger children were Murtaza (born 1954), Sanam (1957), and Shahnawaz (1958).[15] When the elderly Shah Nawaz died in 1957, Zulfikar inherited the family's land holdings, making him extremely wealthy.[16]
Benazir's first language was English; as a child she spoke
Throughout her youth, Bhutto idolised her father,[23] and he, in turn, encouraged her educational development in contravention of traditional approaches to women then pervasive in Pakistan.[24] Relations between her parents were however strained during her childhood; Zulfikar embarked on extra-marital affairs with other women, and when Nusrat objected he had her thrown out of their house. She moved to Iran, but after Zulfikar prevented her children from joining her there, she returned to Pakistan six months later, settling in Karachi.[25] Throughout her life, Bhutto never publicly acknowledged this internal family discord.[26]
When Bhutto was five, her father became the cabinet minister for energy, and when she was nine he became the country's foreign minister.
University studies: 1969–1977
From 1969 to 1973, Bhutto studied for an undergraduate degree at
In 1971, while she was at Harvard, Zulfikar invited her to join him in
In autumn 1973, Bhutto relocated to the United Kingdom and began studying for a second undergraduate degree, in
Despite the ongoing tensions between Pakistan and India, she interacted socially with Indian students,[63] and while at Oxford also made proposals of marriage to two fellow Pakistani students, but was rebuffed on both occasions.[63] Bhutto biographer Brooke Allen thought that her time at Oxford was "almost certainly the happiest, most carefree time of her life".[54]At Oxford, she led a campaign calling for the university to give her father an honorary degree; she gained the support of her father's old tutor, the historian
Zia's Pakistan
Zulfikar's death and Benazir's arrest: 1977–1984
Other women on the subcontinent had picked up the political banners of their husbands, brothers, and fathers before me. The legacies of political families passing down through the women had become a South Asian tradition: Indira Gandhi in India; Sirimavo Bandaranaike in Sri Lanka; Fatima Jinnah and my own mother in Pakistan. I just never thought it would happen to me.
— Bhutto on the impact of her father.[70]
In July 1977, Zulfikar Bhutto—who had just been re-elected in
In September, Zulfikar was re-arrested and charged with the 1974 murder of
After the coup, Zulfikar had appointed his wife co-chair of the PPP,[87] while in October 1977 Benazir was appointed to the PPP's central committee.[88] After Zulfikar's death, Benazir replaced his role in the party, becoming its co-leader.[89] In February 1981, she formally established the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD), a group that brought together the PPP with other political parties in the country: the Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan Democratic Party, Mazdoor Kisan Party, National Awami Party, Quomi Mahaz-e-Azadi, Jamiat-i-Ulema-i-Islam, and the Tahrik-i-Istiqlal.[90] The MRD called for a four-point program: an end to martial law, the restoration of the 1973 constitution, parliamentary elections, and the transfer of political power from the military to the elected representatives.[citation needed] There was nevertheless much mutual suspicion among the parties in the MRD, with Bhutto having reluctantly allowed groups that firmly opposed her father's government to join.[91]
From abroad, her brothers, Murtaza and Shahnawaz, turned to paramilitary action, founding the
Release and self-imposed exile: 1984–1987
From Geneva, Bhutto proceeded to the United Kingdom, undergoing surgery on her mastoid before renting a flat in London's Barbican Estate.[104] There, she socialised with friends, going shopping, hosting dinner parties, and visiting the cinema.[105] One friend said that after her time in prison she remained in "a mildly traumatized state, jumping at sudden noise and worrying about who might be spying on her".[105] In March, Bhutto visited New York City and Washington D.C., where she met with media figures and middle-ranking government officials but was kept at bay by the administration of President Ronald Reagan.[106] Over the coming few years, Bhutto made several additional visits to the United States,[107] spoke to the European Parliament in Strasbourg,[108] visited the Soviet Union,[109] and undertook the Umrah pilgrimage to Mecca.[110]
While in exile, Benazir became a rallying point for the PPP.
In July 1985, Shahnawaz died under unexplained circumstances in the French city of
Back in Pakistan, she agreed to an
Electoral campaign: 1988
In May 1988, Zia dissolved the assemblies and called a November election.
Bhutto insisted that the PPP campaign separately from the MRD,[145] and dropped its socialist platform in favour of economic Thatcherism and a commitment to the free market.[146] Amid predictions that the PPP would win, it received 18,000 prospective candidates, many offering the party money for their selection; this influx of new members and candidates caused upset among many established members, who felt that Bhutto was deserting them.[147] In the build-up to the election, there was a great sense of hope among liberal sectors of Pakistani society.[148] However, Islamic fundamentalists said it was un-Islamic for the country to have a female leader.[149] Their propaganda foregrounded what they presented as her un-Islamic behaviour, including a photo of her dancing in a Parisian nightclub.[150] Zia loyalists and Islamic fundamentalists united to form a new political party, Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI),[151] which was funded by the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI).[152] The ISI also engaged in vote rigging in an attempt to secure an IJI victory.[153] Despite these difficulties, Bhutto led the PPP to victory in the election, taking 93 of the 205 contested seats.[154] The IJI took only 54 seats,[155] although the party secured control of Punjab, the country's largest and most powerful province.[156] This meant that the PPP had the largest number of seats, although not a clear majority.[157] Both the PPP and IJI courted independent MPs hoping to woo them to their side,[158] and unsuccessful attempts were also made by the country's right-wing forces to convince some of the elected PPP parliamentarians to switch allegiance to the IJI.[159]
The people of Pakistan had rejected bigotry and prejudice in electing a woman Prime Minister. It was an enormous honor and an equally enormous responsibility... I had not asked for this role; I had not asked for this mantle. But the forces of destiny and the forces of history had thrust me forward, and I felt privileged and awed.
— Bhutto on becoming Prime Minister in her autobiography[160]
President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was constitutionally obliged to invite Bhutto to form the next government, but was reticent to do so. Under growing pressure—including from the U.S., a key ally—he reluctantly did so two weeks after the election.[161] To build her government, Bhutto formed a coalition with the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) party, which had 13 seats in parliament,[162] an action that upset the Sindhi nationalist faction within her party.[163] She was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Pakistan on 2 December 1988.[164] Bhutto became the first female prime minister in a Muslim-majority country,[165] as well as Pakistan's second nationally elected prime minister.[166] At 35 years old,[167] she was the youngest elected leader in the Islamic world,[168] the world's youngest prime minister,[169] and the youngest female prime minister ever elected.[170] After her election, party workers were encouraged to refer to her as Mohtarma ("respected lady").[171] There was hope among many observers that her premiership would mark a new era of multi-party democracy, growing gender equality, and better relations with India.[172] She personally stated that her electoral victory was "the tipping point in the debate raging in the Muslim world on the role of women in Islam".[173]
In 1988, Bhutto published her autobiography, sub-titled Daughter of the East in its British edition and Daughter of Destiny in the United States.
First term as Prime Minister (1988–1990)
Bhutto's first cabinet was the largest in Pakistan's history.
Following her election, there remained significant mistrust between Bhutto and the right-wing military administration; many senior military figures viewed her, like her father, as a threat to their dominant role in Pakistan's political arena.
Among the problems facing Pakistan when Bhutto took the Premiership was soaring employment and high unemployment.[191] The Pakistani government was bankrupt, with Zia having borrowed at high-interest rates to pay government wages.[180] Many of the policy promises she had made in her election campaign were not delivered because the Pakistani state was unable to finance them; she had claimed that a million new homes would be built each year and that universal free education and healthcare would be introduced, none of which was economically feasible for her government to deliver.[192] The country also faced a growing problem with the illegal narcotics trade, with Pakistan being among the world's largest heroin exporters and the drug's use rapidly increasing domestically.[191] Bhutto pledged that she would take tough action on the powerful drug barons.[180]
Bhutto often argued with Beg, Gul, and Khan over her desired policies, and—according to Allen—"won some battles but ultimately lost the war" against them.[193] Bhutto succeeded in getting Khan's approval to change two of the country's four provincial governors;[194] she appointed General Tikka Khan, one of the few senior military officers who were loyal to her, as the Governor of Punjab.[195] She sought to replace the chair of the joint chiefs of staff, Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey, but President Khan refused to permit this.[194] Bhutto disliked Khan's hostile attitude toward her, but he had the backing of the military.[196] In the presidential election, Bhutto initially proposed Malik Qasim, who had been involved in the MRD, as the PPP's nominee, but the military refused to accept this. Bhutto relented and agreed that Khan could be nominated as the PPP's presidential candidate.[197] Bhutto also wanted to replace Mahbub ul Haq as a finance minister, but again the military opposed her. Compromising, she accepted ul Haq's continued role as finance minister but appointed Wasim Jafri as her financial advisor.[196] Beg made it clear to Bhutto that the military would not tolerate her interference in their control of the defence and foreign affairs.[196]
At the time, 60% of the country's population lived in Punjab province, which was under the control of Zia's protégé, Nawaz Sharif, as provincial Chief Minister.[163] Both Sharif and Bhutto attempted to remove the other from power,[198] with Bhutto accusing Sharif of having rigged the election to become Chief Minister.[199] Sharif benefited from growing Punjabi chauvinism toward the country's Sindhi minority,[200] as well as a perception that Bhutto—a Sindhi—was attacking the Punjab.[201] Although Bhutto had long supported greater autonomy for Pakistan's provinces, she opposed it in the case of the Punjab.[202] Sharif's Punjabi authority refused to accept the federal officials whom Bhutto posted there.[203] Relations between Bhutto and Pakistan's civil service also deteriorated, causing paralysis of many state affairs; Bhutto spoke of it as "Zia's bureaucracy" and her perceived anti-Punjabi stance impacted many civil servants, of whom 80% were Punjabi.[204]
In April 1989, opposition parties organised a parliamentary no-confidence vote in Bhutto's leadership, but it was defeated by 12 votes.[205] Bhutto claimed that many National Assembly voters had been bribed to vote against her, with $10 million having been supplied for this by a Saudi Salafi cleric, Osama bin Laden, who sought to overthrow her government and replace it with an Islamic theocracy.[206] Her conservative critics continued to claim it was un-Islamic for a woman to govern,[207] and unsuccessfully tried to have Pakistan suspended from the international Organisation of Islamic Cooperation on this basis.[208]
Foreign and military policy
During her first premiership, Bhutto went on a number of foreign trips, enhancing her image as the first female prime minister in the Islamic world.
As premier, Bhutto was reluctant to challenge the ISI's support for the Islamist
India and the nuclear bomb
Bhutto initially attempted to improve relations with neighbouring India, withdrawing Zia's offer of a no-war pact and announcing the 1972 Simla Agreement as the basis of future relations.[217] She invited Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and his wife Sonia as her guests for a three-day visit in Islamabad following the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation summit.[218] Rajiv returned on a bilateral visit six months later.[219] She pleased him by revoking Zia's offer of the Nishan-e-Pakistan award to the former Indian leader Morarji Desai.[220] The two countries agreed to reduce their military levels along the border and agreed not to attack their respective nuclear installations.[221] Bhutto claimed that she terminated support for Sikh separatists active in India, something which Zia had encouraged to destabilise Indian control in their half of the Punjab.[222] This warming of relations angered many domestic Islamist and conservative forces; they alleged that she and Gandhi were having a sexual relationship,[223] said that she was secretly an Indian agent,[224] and also placed renewed emphasis on the fact that Bhutto's paternal grandmother had been born to a Hindu family.[223]
The people of Kashmir do not fear death because they are Muslims. The Kashmiris have the blood of the mujahids and ghazis. The Kashmiris have the blood of muhajadeens because Kashmiris are the heirs of Prophet Mohammed, Hazrat Ali, and Hazrat Omar.
And the brave women of Kashmir? They know how to fight and also to live. And when they live, they do so with dignity. From every village only one voice will emerge: freedom; from every school only one voice will emerge: freedom; every child will shout, "freedom, freedom, freedom".
— Bhutto's speech rallying Kashmiri militants to fight for independence from India, 1990[219]
After accusations of being too conciliatory towards India, Bhutto took a harder line against them, particularly on the Kashmir conflict.[225] Amid growing Kashmiri protests against Indian rule, in interviews Bhutto expressed support for the Kashmiri Muslim community.[226] She called on the United Nations to oversee the Kashmir plebiscite originally promised in 1948.[193] Bhutto visited a training camp for pro-independence Kashmiris on the Pakistani side of the border and pledged $5 million for their cause; she followed this with further statements in support of the pro-independence groups.[227] In one speech, she incited Kashmiri Muslims to rise up against their administration.[219] Later, in a 1993 interview, Bhutto stated that supporting proxy wars in Punjab and Kashmir was the "one right thing" undertaken by Zia, presenting these in part as revenge for India's role in "the humiliating loss of Bangladesh".[228]
In 1990, Major General Pervez Musharraf proposed a military invasion of Kargil as part of an attempt to annex Kashmir; Bhutto refused to back the plan, believing that the international condemnation would be severe.[229][230] With both armies mobilizing on either side of the border, there were growing fears that tensions over Kashmir could result in a
After Bhutto became prime minister, President Khan and the military were reluctant to tell her about Pakistan's nuclear program,
Dismissal
The ISI organised Operation Midnight Jackal, through which they used bribery and intimidation to discourage National Assembly members from voting with the PPP.[236] By 1990, the revelation of Midnight Jackal lessened President Khan's influence in national politics, government and the military.[237]
In the 1980s, ethnic violence had broken out in Sindh province, with most of those killed being
In 1990, Bhutto gave birth to her first daughter, Bakhtawar.[246]
Tales of corruption in public-sector industries began to surface, which undermined the credibility of Bhutto. The unemployment and labour strikes began to take place which halted and jammed the economic wheel of the country, and Bhutto was unable to solve these issues due to the cold war with the President.[247] In August 1990, Khan dismissed Bhutto's government under the Eighth Amendment of the constitution.[248] He claimed that this was necessary owing to her government's corruption and inability to maintain law and order.[242] A caretaker government under the control of former PPP member Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi was sworn in, with Khan declaring a state of national emergency.[239]
First term as leader of the opposition (1990–1993)
Khan called for new elections.[239] In the meantime, Bhutto and her husband were forbidden to leave Pakistan,[239] although they purchased an apartment in Queen's Gate, in the South Kensington area of London.[249] In October, Zardari was arrested on charges of extortion. According to the allegations, he had attached a remote-control bomb to the leg of a businessman and forced the latter to enter a bank and withdraw money. He was convicted and remained in prison for three years.[250]
In the 1990 general election, the PPP only secured 45 of the 217 seats.[251] The IJI, under the leadership of Nawaz Sharif, won a majority in the Parliament, and Sharif became prime minister.[252] Bhutto became the leader of the opposition.[252] From this position she attacked Sharif's every policy, highlighting his government's failings in dealing with Pakistan's problems of poverty, unemployment, and lack of healthcare, although not also discussing her own administration's failures on those same issues.[253] To journalists she remained unrepentant about her period in office, insisting that she had made no mistakes.[251] She subsequently also accused Sharif of backing the Salafi jihadist militant group al-Qaeda, established by bin Laden.[254] Following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991, Bhutto visited India to attend his funeral.[224]
As dissatisfaction with Sharif's government grew, the PPP began to restore the support it had lost during Bhutto's premiership.[253] Encouraging public protests, in November 1992, she organised a 10-mile march from Rawalpindi to Islamabad in protest at the IJI government.[253][255] Sharif ordered her to be placed under house arrest to prevent her instigating any uprisings.[253]
Despite an economic recovery in late 1993, the IJI government faced public unease about the direction of the country and industrialisation that revolved around and centered only in Punjab Province. Amid protest and civil disorder in Sindh Province following the imposition of Operation Clean-up, the IDA government lost control of the province.[256] The Peoples Party attacked the IDA government's record on unemployment and industrial racism.[257]
Sharif had attempted to reduce the president's powers.[258] Relations between Sharif and President Khan also soured and the prime minister came under pressure to resign from the armed forces.[253] With growing tensions between him and President Khan, in April 1993 the latter used the Eighth Amendment to dismiss Sharif as prime minister, citing corruption and misadministration.[259] An agreement was reached whereby both Sharif and Khan would step down.[253] The military formed an interim government and called a general election for October 1993.[253] Their policies were very similar but a
In February 1993, Bhutto gave birth to her daughter, Asifa.[246] That year, she also declared herself chair of the PPP for life.[262] This move reflected the lack of internal democracy within the party, which was increasingly referred to as the "Bhutto Family Party" (BFP).[263] During her campaign for the 1993 general election, the Salafi jihadist Ramzi Yousef unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate her twice. Yousef went on to play a role in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in the U.S.[264]
Second term as Prime Minister (1993–1996)
In the October 1993 general election, the PPP won the most seats,[265] although it fell short of an outright majority, with 86 seats.[253] Sharif's new party, the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz), came second with 73 seats.[253][266] The PPP performed extremely well in Bhutto's native province, Sindh, and rural Punjab, while the PML-N was strongest in industrial Punjab and the largest cities such as Karachi, Lahore and Rawalpindi.[267] Bhutto was again prime minister, but this time had a weaker parliamentary mandate than she had had in 1988.[268] She was officially sworn in on 19 October 1993.[269]
Realising the threat to her premiership posed by an unsympathetic president, Bhutto ensured that a PPP member, Farooq Leghari, was nominated and duly elected to the presidency in November.[270][266] Zardari was freed from prison after Bhutto returned to office in 1993.[271] During her second term, Bhutto appointed both her husband and mother to her cabinet.[272] The former was appointed investment minister, chief of the Intelligence Bureau, director-general of the Federal Investigation Agency, and chair of the new Environment Protection Council.[273] She gave him a monopoly on the country's gold imports, a post that earned him $10 million, which he deposited in an Indian bank.[274] Allen suggested that measures like these reflected how Bhutto had "given up on all her previous ideals and simply caved into the culture of corruption—indeed excelled in it, as she had excelled in so many other areas".[275]
John Burns, a journalist from The New York Times, investigated the business transactions of Bhutto and his wife, exposing the scale of their corruption.[274] By 1996, their takings through these various deals were estimated at $1.5 billion.[274] A subsequent inquiry by Pakistan's Accountability Bureau found that in that year, Bhutto, her husband, and her mother only declared assets totaling $1.2 million, leaving out the extensive foreign accounts and properties that they possessed.[276] Despite their significant earnings, the couple did not pay the amount of tax owed; between 1993 and 1994, Bhutto paid no income tax at all.[276] In 1996, Transparency International ranked Pakistan as the world's second most corrupt country.[277]
Bhutto ordered the construction of a new residence in Islamabad; it covered 110 acres of ground and cost $50 million to construct.[278] In 1993, Bhutto declared that her family burial ground would be converted into an official mausoleum and would undergo significant expansion.[276] She dropped the first architect she employed to do the job after deciding that she wanted a more Islamic design; she replaced him with Waqar Akbar Rizvi, instructing him to visit the tombs of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and Ruhollah Khomeini for inspiration.[276] In 1995, Zardari purchased a fifteen-bedroom country house at Rockwood in Surrey, southern England; to hide evidence of ownership, he obtained the property through companies based in the Isle of Man.[278] She spent much of her second term abroad, making 24 foreign trips during its first twelve months.[279]
Domestic and foreign policy
The PPP Government made dramatic reforms in women's rights. I appointed several women to my cabinet and established a Ministry of Women's Development. We created women's studies programs in universities. We established a Women's Development Bank to give credit only to enterprising women... And we legalized and encouraged women's participation in international sports, which had been banned in the years of the Zia military dictatorship. It was a solid start in a society where Islam had been exploited to repress the position of women in society for a bitter generation.
— Bhutto on the women's rights advances of her government[280]
Seeking to advance women's rights, in her second term Bhutto signed Pakistan to the international Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.[281] She was also a founding member of the Council of Women World Leaders, a group established in 1996.[282] Bhutto oversaw the creation of a women's division in the government, headed by a senior female civil servant, as well as a women's bank.[283] She opened a series of all-female police stations, staffed with female officers, to make women feel safer in coming forward to report crimes.[284] She established family courts with female judges to deal with child custody and family issues,[281] and in 1994–95 the first women judges were appointed to the Supreme Courts of Peshawar and Sindh.[281] The fundamentalist Islamic laws introduced to restrict women's rights under Zia nevertheless remained in place;[285] her failure to remove the hudood ordinances brought criticism from liberal circles and damaged her relations with women's and human rights groups.[286]
Bhutto stated that once back in the office, she asked for reasons why the Kahuta enrichment plant had broken her command by producing weapons-grade uranium and implemented a new system of security at the plant to provide greater oversight of the facility's scientists.[235] Both the military and ISI, however, supported the development of material that could produce viable nuclear weaponry.[235] India had developed the Agni missile a system which would allow the country to strike all of Pakistan's major cities, and as a counter, many in the Pakistani administration believed that they needed an equivalent launch pad system for their nuclear warheads.[275] They decided to make a deal with the North Korean government, exchanging information about enrichment for missile technology.[275] Bhutto later claimed that on her 1993 visit to North Korea, she secretly carried a computer CD containing nuclear data, although she subsequently retracted this claim.[275] Bhutto also made a state visit to the U.S. in 1995, where she convinced Congress to repeal sanctions that they had imposed on Pakistan over its nuclear weapons programme in 1990.[287]
In September 1996, the
Bhutto was prime minister at a time of great racial tension in Pakistan.
Sharif had been a proponent of
Relations with Murtaza
As many PPP members became increasingly dissatisfied with Bhutto during the 1990s, they referred to her brother Mir Murtaza, still in exile, as Zulfikar's true heir.
In June 1994, Murtaza was released on bail,
On 20 September 1996, Murtaza was ambushed by police near Karachi; they opened fire, killing him and seven others.
Domestic affairs
Her approval poll rose by 38% after she appeared and said in a private television interview after the elections: "We are unhappy with the manner in which tampered electoral lists were provided in a majority of constituencies; our voters were turned away."
Benazir Bhutto expanded the authoritative rights of
Economic issues
Bhutto was an economist by profession; therefore during her terms as prime minister, she herself took charge of the
Pakistan suffered a currency crisis when the government failed to arrest the 30% fall in the value of the
Overall, the living standard for people in Pakistan declined as inflation and unemployment grew at an exponential rate particularly as UN sanctions began to take effect. During her first and second term, the difference between rich and poor visibly increased and the middle class in particular were the ones who bore the brunt of the economic inequality. According to a calculation completed by the
This operation backfired and had devastating effects on Pakistan's economy.[329] President Khan saw this as a major economic failure despite Khan's permission granted to Bhutto for the approval of her economic policies. Khan blamed Bhutto for this extensive economic slowdown and her policy that failed to stop the illegal immigration. Khan attributed Bhutto's government members corruption in government-owned industries as the major sinkhole in Pakistan's economy that failed to compete with neighboring India's economy.[327]
Privatisation and era of stagflation
During her second term, Bhutto continued to follow former prime minister Nawaz Sharif's
On many occasions, Bhutto resisted to privatise globally competitive and billion-dollar-worth state-owned enterprises (such as
Foreign policy
Major-General Pervez Musharraf worked closely with Bhutto and her government in formulating an Israel strategy. In 1993 Bhutto ordered Musharraf, then Director-General of the Pakistani Army's Directorate-General for the Military Operation (DGMO), to join her state visit to the United States, unusual and unconventional participation. Bhutto and Musharraf chaired a secret meeting with Israeli officials who traveled to the US especially for the meeting. Under Bhutto's guidance Musharraf intensified the ISI's liaison with Israel's
During her second term, relations with Indian Prime Minister
In 1995, the ISI reported to Bhutto that Narasimha Rao had authorised nuclear tests and that they could be conducted at any minute.[291] Benazir put the country's nuclear arsenal programme on high-alert[341] made emergency preparations, and ordered the Pakistani armed forces to remain on high-alert.[339] However the United States intervened, Indian operations for conducting the nuclear tests were called off and the Japanese government attempted to mediate. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto met with Japanese officials and warned India about conducting nuclear tests. She revealed for the first time that Pakistan had achieved parity with India in its capacity to produce nuclear weapons and their delivery capability. She told the Indian press, that Pakistan "cannot afford to negate the parity we maintain with India". These statements represented a departure from Pakistan's previous policy of "nuclear ambivalence".[339] Bhutto issued a statement on the tests and told the international press that she condemned the Indian nuclear tests. "If [India] conducts a nuclear test, it would force her [Pakistan] to ... follow suit", she said.[339]
Bhutto also ratcheted up her policy on Indian
Relations with military
During her second term, Benazir Bhutto's relations with the Pakistan Armed Forces took a different and pro-Bhutto approach, when she carefully appointed General
After the assassination was attempted, Benazir Bhutto's civilian security team headed under
Second dismissal
Relations between Bhutto and Leghari had declined after she suggested he had been involved in her brother's murder. Leghari sought the backing of the Army Chief, Karamat, to move against her premiership.[344] Leghari warned Bhutto that he would dismiss her government unless she introduced measures to curtail corruption and deal with the economic crisis.[345][346] In response, she gave up her role as Minister of Finances and dismissed most of her economic advisers in October 1996.[345][346] She nevertheless maintained that the country's economic problems were the fault of Sharif's previous administration.[345][346] Citing the eighth amendment of the Constitution, on 5 November, Leghari dismissed Bhutto's government on the grounds of corruption and incompetence. He added the suspicion that Bhutto had been involved in her brother's death.[347][346] Troops surrounded Bhutto's residence,[346] while Zardari tried to leave the country for Dubai, but was arrested and imprisoned, charged with money laundering and involvement in Murtaza's murder. He remained in prison until 2004.[348][346]
Leghari installed a civilian caretaker government led by Malik Meraj Khalid while announcing forthcoming elections for February 1997.[346] Bhutto challenged the constitutionality of Leghari's decision, taking the issue to the Supreme Court, but they ruled in agreement with the president in January in a 6–1 ruling.[349][350] The Supreme Court's decision also resulted in the removal of all pro-Bhutto elements from the military.[349] In the ensuing election, which took place in February 1997, Sharif was re-elected.[351] The PPP had secured only 18 seats in the National Assembly.[352] Some Pakistani feminist groups had refused to back Bhutto's re-election because, despite her repeated promises, she had not removed the hudud ordinances that Zia's administration had introduced.[353]
Second term as leader of the opposition (1996–1999)
Newly re-elected, Sharif moved quickly to curtail the powers of the presidency and judiciary.[354] He removed the constitution's Eighth Amendment which had been used by successive presidents to oust both Bhutto and himself from office.[354] Sharif also launched judicial proceedings against Bhutto.[352] In 1998, India tested its first nuclear weapon; Bhutto responded with an editorial for the Los Angeles Times in which she argued that the international community should go further than imposing economic sanctions on India, but should launch a preemptive bomb strike on India's nuclear facilities.[355] She called on Sharif to retaliate with a series of Pakistani military tests.[355] After Sharif's government did so, Bhutto called for Pakistan to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and arrive at a bilateral agreement on nuclear proliferation with India.[355] Tensions between India and Pakistan resulted in the Kargil War of 1999; the conflict humiliated Pakistan both militarily and politically and left the country with a very poor international standing. Bhutto observed the conflict from abroad, describing it as "Pakistan's biggest blunder".[356]
In April 1999, the Ehtesab Bench of the Lahore High Court convicted Bhutto in absentia, giving her a five years prison sentence, an $8.6 million fine, and disqualifying her from public office.[357] The Pakistani authorities unsuccessfully tried to secure her arrest and extradition through Interpol.[358] Bhutto claimed that this was politically motivated.[358] She was in London at the time of the judgment, and rather than returning to Pakistan she relocated to Dubai.[359] She decided on Dubai because Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the President of the United Arab Emirates, had been a longstanding friend of her family.[360] She brought her mother and three children to live there with her,[361] settling into a villa in the Emirates Hills given to her by the Emirati government.[362] She claimed that were she to return to Pakistan then she would be imprisoned and then murdered.[362]
She remained in Dubai for eight years, for five of which her husband remained imprisoned in Pakistan.[362] She remained head of the PPP,[354] and spent much of her time in exile fighting the corruption charges that were being brought against her and her husband.[354] Two years later a retrial was ordered after it was ascertained that undue political bias was exerted on the judges.[363] Bhutto also campaigned for Zardari's release from prison.[354] Some of her close political advisers suggested that she abandon him for the sake of her political career, but she refused.[354] While in Dubai, she also focused on raising her children and caring for her mother, whose Alzheimer's disease had progressed to a severe stage.[364]
In October 1999, the chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Pervez Musharraf, launched a military coup which ousted Sharif from power.[365] Bhutto called the coup "disturbing" and "distressing" but noted that it had got rid of Sharif, "an unpopular despot who was hounding the press, the judiciary, the opposition, the foreign investors." She called on Western countries to push for a return to electoral democracy in Pakistan.[366] Musharraf stated that both Sharif and Bhutto had "misgoverned the country" and had failed to allow internal democracy within their own parties, pointing to Bhutto's appointment as chair for life of the PPP, something he compared to "the old African dictators".[367]
In April 2000, Sharif was convicted of treason and sentenced to life imprisonment.[368] At the request of the Saudi monarch, Sharif was released from prison after a year and exiled to Saudi Arabia; he was also disqualified from holding public office.[369] In 2002, Musharraf amended the constitution to ban anyone serving more than two terms as prime minister, thus disqualifying both Bhutto and Sharif, whom he called "useless politicians".[370][371] Musharraf also consolidated power around himself; in June 2001 he appointed himself to the Presidency, holding this position alongside his positions as chief executive and chief of the army staff.[368] He talked about the need for a return to democracy and to respect human rights.[372] He was a secularist and repealed the Hudood Ordinances, an achievement Bhutto had been unable to make.[373] In an April 2002 referendum, Musharraf extended his presidential mandate for a further five years.[374] Bhutto expressed concern that with mainstream politicians removed from Pakistan's political arena, the vacuum would be filled by Islamist extremists.[368]
She was in Dubai while the PPP contested the October 2002 general election; it received the largest number of votes but only 63 seats in the National Assembly.[375] Musharraf agreed to release Zardari in November 2004 as a symbol of good will; following his release, Zardari travelled to New York for medical treatment.[376] Bhutto flew to New York roughly every three weeks to visit him.[377] The couple did not officially acknowledge it, but their relationship was essentially over.[378] Figures in the PPP alleged that Musharraf held a longstanding animosity towards Bhutto and her family because, under her father, Musharraf's father had been sacked from his position, accused of involvement in a scam.[379]
Charges of corruption
In June 1997, the Pakistani government formally requested that the Swiss government review bank accounts owned by Bhutto and her husband.
Benazir Bhutto was embroiled in a number of cases being pursued by Nawaz Sharif's government in 1997. She termed those cases as a part of Sharif's plan to eliminate her from politics. In an effort to challenge Sharif government's "ehtesab drive", Ms Bhutto along with other PPP leaders visited the Ehtesab Commission, Islamabad, where she handed over corruption references against then PM Nawaz Sharif and his brother Shehbaz Sharif to Abdul Jaleel, Director Special Enquiries at the Ehtesab Commission. These references contained charges of corruptions against Sharif family and Saif-ur-Rehman who was a close aide of Nawaz Sharif. Ms Bhutto gave full statements of facts of complaints.[383][384] In 1998, Switzerland issued a request for the arrest of Bhutto on suspicion of money laundering.[352] The Geneva City Court subsequently charged Zardari in absentia with laundering money and taking bribes of $15 million from SGS and Cotecna.[385] A Swiss court ordered her to turn over $11.9 million to the Pakistani state and to serve 180 days in prison.[277] 17 Swiss bank accounts owned by the Zardari-Bhutto family were frozen by the country's government.[277] In 2004, a UK court ruled that Rockwood Estate in Surrey—which Zardari owned, despite his repeated denials—should be sold and the proceeds given to the Pakistani state, who were the rightful owners. Zardari protested, admitting that he owned the property and that he should receive the proceeds of its sale.[386]
Through a spokesman, Bhutto said that the charges against her represented a
Bhutto was a client of
In 2006, the Pakistani National Accountability Bureau (NAB) accused Bhutto, Malik and Ali Jaffery of owning Petrofine. Bhutto and the PPP denied this. In April 2006 an NAB court froze assets owned in Pakistan and elsewhere by Bhutto and Zardari. The $1.5 billion in assets were acquired through corrupt practices, the NAB said, and noting that the 1997 Swiss charges of criminal money-laundering were still in litigation.[392] At Pakistan's request, Interpol issued notices—but not arrest warrants—for Bhutto and her husband.[393] On 27 January 2007, she was invited by the United States to speak to President George W. Bush and Congressional and State Department officials.[394]
Later life and death
Negotiating a return to Pakistan: 2006–2007
The US and UK had supported Musharraf because of his role in assisting their
Assisted by Luis Ayala, the secretary-general of the Socialist International, in 2006 Bhutto and Sharif began a process of reconciliation.[402] Ayala believed that this was a prerequisite for ensuring Pakistan's transition back to democratic elections.[402] Both Bhutto and Sharif had residences in London, not far from one another. Facilitated by the lawyer Aitzaz Ahsan, the pair developed a joint plan of action.[402] In May 2006 they both signed a Charter of Democracy, a document calling for an end to military rule.[403] They established a committee consisting of four Pakistani senators, two from the PPP and two from the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz).[402] Henceforth, Bhutto avoided openly criticizing Sharif as she once had.[404]
Concerned about the instability of their ally, the US government pushed Musharraf to meet with Bhutto and come to an arrangement that might strengthen his legitimacy.[405] This was also encouraged by the UK government.[406] In January 2007, Musharraf held his first meeting with Bhutto at a hotel in Abu Dhabi, followed by further talks in June.[407] As a result of their discussions, it was agreed that the Pakistani authorities would drop all charges of corruption against both Bhutto and her husband.[408] This was achieved through the introduction of the National Reconciliation Ordinance, a measure which nullified all pending criminal proceedings against politicians.[409] The Ordinance also lifted Musharraf's ban on individuals serving more than two terms as prime minister.[410] It was agreed that if Musharraf stepped down from his military positions and was elected as a civilian President, then Bhutto would be willing to serve under him as prime minister.[411] Many of Musharraf's close allies had reservations about his concessions to Bhutto.[412]
The United States'
The US publisher
Return to Pakistan: October–December 2007
Bhutto returned to Pakistan in October 2007, arriving in Karachi.[419] It was widely thought that she had a strong chance of becoming the country's next prime minister in the 2008 national elections,[420] although her deal with Musharraf and links with the U.S. had dented her popularity and Sharif—still in Saudi Arabia—was more popular in the opinion polls.[421] Musharraf was annoyed at her arrival, having requested that she return only after the election.[422] Her husband and daughters remained in Dubai, while her son was still studying at Oxford.[423]
Bhutto described the main problem facing her country as the clash between "moderation and extremism",
Relations between the pair were further strained when Musharraf declared a state of emergency and suspended the constitution in November, at which point Bhutto was visiting Dubai.[433] The PPP and PML-N launched protests at Musharraf's actions.[434] Against the warnings of some of her advisors, Bhutto quickly returned to Pakistan, where she was briefly placed under house arrest.[435] She then publicly denounced Musharraf, fearing that any association with him would damage her credibility.[436] On 26 November, Sharif returned from exile; that same day, Bhutto filed papers to contest two parliamentary seats in the Larkana constituency.[437] As he had previously agreed with Bhutto, Musharraf then retired as army chief and was sworn in as Pakistan's civilian president.[438][439][440]
In early December, Bhutto met with Sharif to publicise their demand that Musharraf fulfil his promise to lift the state of emergency before January's parliamentary elections, threatening to boycott the vote if he failed to comply.[441][442][443] On 16 December, Musharraf did so.[444] Bhutto announced that the PPP would campaign on "the five E's": employment, education, energy, environment, and equality.[437] The PPP's manifesto called for greater civilian oversight of, and restrictions on, the military and intelligence agencies.[445] They also vowed to rid the intelligence services of elements driven by political or religious motives.[445]
Assassination: December 2007
On the morning of 27 December 2007, Bhutto met with Afghan President
Authorities claimed that the assassin had been a teenage boy from
In Bhutto's political will, she had designated her son Bilawal, who was then 19, as her political heir as chair of the PPP. It also specified that her husband should serve as custodial chairman until Bilawal completed his formal education.
As president, Zardari called for a
Ideology
Bhutto was committed to democracy and modernisation,
Bhutto admired the
During her years in office, Bhutto also did nothing to seriously challenge the
Under Bhutto's leadership, the PPP was officially secular,
Bhutto was indignant when faced with sexism,
Personal life
Personality
According to Bhutto biographer Shyam Bhatia, Bhutto possessed a desire to be liked and to be popular, and for this reason "was prepared to be all things to all people", having a "chameleon-like" quality to blend into her environment.[509] Muñoz concurred, describing Bhutto as "a woman of contradictions".[510] Suvorova similarly observed that Bhutto presented herself differently when in the West compared to when she was in Pakistan.[511] While in Pakistan Bhutto presented herself as a conservative Muslim who always wore her head covered, but as a student in Oxford she had adopted a more liberal lifestyle, tending to wear a T-shirt and jeans and occasionally drinking wine.[505] As a politician, she was conscious of how her image was presented in Pakistan; she dressed modestly, was never photographed with a glass lest it is interpreted as containing alcohol, and would refuse to shake men's hands.[512] In the country, she also wore a white dupatta on her head to placate Islamist opposition; her mother and other female family members had not covered their hair in this manner.[177]
The journalist
Familial charisma is rare, but in Benazir's case the Bhutto name matters, in that her father's charisma easily transferred to her. She had her own charisma when she emerged in the 1980s as a young, articulate, well-educated, and well-spoken woman. Her chief assets were her intelligence, her confidence, and the fact that she could talk to people of various backgrounds with empathy. She had the rare quality of humor, which she never lost in spite of leading an uncertain and challenging life. Above all, she could use the media effectively. Her faults as a political leader were many. Too many stories of corruption stuck to her. She was not a good administrator. She was too inclined to listen to her small kitchen cabinet, which very often consisted of people who would say what they thought she wanted to hear. She became prime minister at a particularly young age and had no prior political or other cabinet experience.
— Islamic studies scholar Akbar S. Ahmed, 2008[512]
Commentators and biographers have said that Bhutto shared her father's charisma
Having encountered her later in life, Muñoz regarded Bhutto as a "charming and intelligent" woman.[523] Close friends called her "BB",[524] a name with which she signed some of her personal letters.[56] Her parents gave her the childhood nickname of "Pinkie",[525] possibly alluding to her rosy complexion.[526]
Allen described Bhutto as "a woman of action rather than an intellectual".
In a 2002 interview with
Family
Bhutto was the oldest of four children.[532] Of these, her younger sister Sanam, or "Sunny", remained close to her throughout her life.[533]
On returning to Pakistan in 1987, Bhutto's mother arranged for her marriage to the businessman Asif Ali Zardari.[63] Many of her friends were surprised that Bhutto acquiesced to Islamic tradition given her liberal attitudes, however, she later related that she "felt obligations to my family and my religion" to go through with it and that her high public profile made it difficult for her to find a husband through other means.[534] She consistently presented an image of respect and loyalty for her husband, throughout the many accusations and periods of imprisonment he faced.[535] Allen commented that it would probably never be known how happy the couple's marriage was, for Bhutto "always projected support and loyalty for her unpopular mate".[132]
In the final years of Bhutto's life, she and her husband lived apart. According to Allen, she would have been aware that a divorce or a public separation would have resulted in the end of her political career in Pakistan due to social stigma around the subject.[132] In a 2007 interview, Bhutto said that she and her husband were living apart because of his medical requirements, adding that she visited him every month in New York.[536] Regarding the rumors of separation, in 2008 Bhutto's friend Victoria Schofield said that the marriage should not be judged by ordinary standards. According to Schofield, after Zardari's return from prison, the Bhuttos' marriage was going through a process of "readjustment".[537] In 2018, Bhutto's friend Ron Suskind described the marriage as "probably not all bad", although added that Bhutto did not consider her husband to be an equal partner in the marriage.[538]
The couple had three children: a son, Bilawal, was born in September 1988, while she was campaigning for that year's election.[539] She also had two daughters, Bakhtawar (born on 25 January 1990) and Aseefa (born on 3 February 1993). When she gave birth to Bakhtawar, she became the first elected head of government to give birth while in office.[540][541] Bhutto was devoted to her father and husband.[542] In later life, she increasingly came to see success through the prism of her family.[543]
Public image and legacy
The Benazir Bhutto of 1988 was a uniting figure for her country; that of twenty years later, a divisive one. In retrospect, her best and worst qualities seem so intimately linked that the course of her career might almost have been predicted.
— Biographer Brooke Allen, 2016[544]
Muñoz described Bhutto as "one of Pakistan's most important political figures, a respected world leader, and the leading stateswoman in the Islamic world".[510] Allen suggested that although Bhutto's record in office was that of a "corrupt, compromised politician", she displayed admirable qualities, especially valor in the face of opposition.[516] Within the Islamic world, Bhutto was often regarded as "a genuine Muslim political leader" and recognised as the head of Pakistan's most popular political party.[512] Bhargava expressed the view that at the time of her initial election, Bhutto's "personal popularity" was "tremendous", larger than any that her father had previously achieved,[545] with Suvorova suggesting that at this point in her life Bhutto was often regarded as a "quasi-saint" by her supporters.[546] In 1996, the Guinness Book of Records named her the most popular international politician of the year,[289] and she also received such awards at the French Legion of Honour and Oxford University's Doctor Honours Causa.[289]
At the same time there were many Pakistanis who despised her, disliking her popularity, her ties to Western nations, and her modernizing agenda.[510] Extremist Sunni Islamist elements opposed her because of their belief that female leaders are un-Islamic, and because she was a Shia Muslim.[498] They maintained that her participation in politics meant associating with men to whom she was not related and that this compromised the modesty required by Islam.[547] Conservative clerical opponents also claimed that by being prime minister, Bhutto was failing her religious duty, which was to focus her energies on having as many children as possible.[548]
Ahmed stated that Bhutto was one of the very few political leaders who had been able to "assume the iconic status of a political martyr in the West while simultaneously evoking strong sentiments in the Muslim world".[507] He therefore contrasted her with contemporaries like Iraq's Saddam Hussein who were popular domestically but hated in the West, and those like Egypt's Hosni Mubarak who curried favor with Western governments while alienating their domestic audience.[507] Bhutto gained popularity in Western nations in part because she could present herself as being "part of their world", speaking a high standard of English and having been educated at Harvard and Oxford.[512] While her Western supporters sometimes had doubts about her ability to govern, they generally viewed her as a progressive figure who could advance democracy and counter-terrorism in Pakistan.[510]
Allen commented that "the cards might have been stacked in Bhutto's favor—she was rich, educated, aristocratic, the favored daughter of a very powerful father—nevertheless, her achievement was a remarkable one" given the male-dominated environment of late-20th century Pakistani society.[516] Mushtaq Ahmed similarly believed that "for a woman to win an election in a male-dominated society was an achievement",[549] and that "her victory over the forces of reaction and persecution was an unprecedented accomplishment in political history."[170] Ahmed thought that the election of a female prime minister in a Muslim-majority country served as "a proclamation that Islam was a forward-thinking religion".[549] He added that as a pioneering female leader, Bhutto had "barely half a dozen" parallels, among them Indira Gandhi, Thatcher, Golda Meir, Chandrika Kumaratunga, and Corazon Aquino.[170] Comparisons with Aquino were often made — and welcomed by Bhutto — because both women had fought against a military dictatorship and spent time in exile.[550] She became a global icon for women's rights,[63] and inspired many Pakistani girls and women by her example.[516] The Pakistani women's rights activist Malala Yousafzai—who received the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize—cited Bhutto as a personal inspiration.[516][551][552] Writing in The American Prospect magazine, the journalist Adele M. Stan called Bhutto "An Imperfect Feminist", commenting that despite her efforts towards women's rights, these were sometimes offset by her compromises with Pakistan's Islamists and her support of the Taliban's rise to power in neighbouring Afghanistan.[553]
Assessing her legacy,
Several
Authored books
References
Explanatory notes
- : بينظير ڀُٽو
Footnotes
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Suvorova 2015, p. 104; Allen 2016, p. 10.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 16; Suvorova 2015, p. 104; Allen 2016, p. 8.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, pp. 14–15; Bhatia 2008, pp. 12–13; Muñoz 2013, p. 20; Allen 2016, p. 4.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 14; Lamb 1991, p. 29.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. x.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 31.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 12.
- ^ "pakistan, a Shia-leads a Sunni Army".
- ^ "From Jinnah to Benazir".
- ^ "Benazir's Hindu Connections".
- ^ Bhutto, Benazir (2008). Daughter of the East. p. 25.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 9.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Muñoz 2013, p. 19; Suvorova 2015, p. 104.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 106.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Suvorova 2015, p. 106; Allen 2016, p. 12.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 12.
- ^ "The death of an icon". 25 October 2011.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 19; Suvorova 2015, p. 106; Allen 2016, p. 15.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Allen 2016, p. 15.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 13, 14; Suvorova 2015, p. 106; Allen 2016, pp. 15, 17.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 60; Allen 2016, p. 17.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Allen 2016, p. 21.
- ^ a b Bhatia 2008, p. 16.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14.
- ^ Allen 2016, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 16.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 13; Suvorova 2015, p. 106.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 15.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 13; Muñoz 2013, p. 42; Suvorova 2015, p. 107; Allen 2016, p. 18.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 18.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 13.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 14; Allen 2016, pp. 19, 20.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 5–6; Muñoz 2013, p. 49; Suvorova 2015, p. 108.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 21.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 46.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 46; Allen 2016, p. 23.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 106–107.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 22.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 49; Suvorova 2015, p. 110.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 23.
- ^ Sunder, Madhavi (8 June 1989). "Behind 'Pinkie' Bhutto's Passion for Politics". The Harvard Crimson'.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 36; Allen 2016, p. 24.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 24.
- ^ WOMAN IN THE NEWS; Daughter of Determination: Benazir Bhutto NY Times
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 49.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 16; Allen 2016, p. 28.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 112; Allen 2016, p. 30.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 21; Bhatia 2008, pp. xiii–xiv, 16; Muñoz 2013, pp. 44–45; Suvorova 2015, p. 112; Allen 2016, p. 32.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 60.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 32.
- ^ Allen 2016, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 23; Bhatia 2008, p. 16; Muñoz 2013, p. 49; Allen 2016, p. 38.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 26; Bhatia 2008, pp. 2–3, 6; Suvorova 2015, pp. 115, 117–118; Allen 2016, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b c Allen 2016, p. 37.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 16; Allen 2016, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Suvorova 2015, p. 118.
- ^ "Note at St. Catherine's web site". Archived from the original on 13 January 2009.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 3; Allen 2016, p. 23.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 26; Bhatia 2008, p. 15; Suvorova 2015, pp. 120–121; Allen 2016, p. 37.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 50; Suvorova 2015, p. 121.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 121.
- ISBN 9781786062642.
- ^ a b c d Bhatia 2008, p. 4.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 7; Allen 2016, p. 29.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Allen 2016, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 50; Allen 2016, p. 45.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 26; Bhatia 2008, p. 16; Suvorova 2015, p. 118.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 45.
- ^ a b Suvorova 2015, p. 10.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 127; Allen 2016, p. 43.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 58.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 129.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 129; Allen 2016, p. 46.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 46.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, pp. 130–131; Allen 2016, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Allen 2016, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, pp. 131–132; Allen 2016, p. 47.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 18; Muñoz 2013, p. 51; Allen 2016, p. 48.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 18; Allen 2016, p. 53.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 18; Talbot 2009, p. 258; Allen 2016, p. 53.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 52.
- ^ a b c Bhatia 2008, p. 19.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 49.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 47; Suvorova 2015, p. 135; Allen 2016, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 47.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 48.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 50.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 138.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, pp. 138–139; Allen 2016, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 63.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 20; Suvorova 2015, p. 139; Allen 2016, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 47; Suvorova 2015, p. 140; Allen 2016, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 63; Allen 2016, p. 66.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 145.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 47; Suvorova 2015, p. 145; Allen 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 47; Suvorova 2015, pp. 143–145; Allen 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 47–48; Allen 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 143; Allen 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 48–49; Suvorova 2015, p. 145; Allen 2016, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 49–50; Suvorova 2015, p. 146; Allen 2016, p. 70.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 52; Suvorova 2015, p. 147; Allen 2016, p. 70.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 14; Bhatia 2008, p. 107; Suvorova 2015, pp. 148, 150; Allen 2016, pp. 70, 72.
- ^ a b Allen 2016, p. 72.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 52; Suvorova 2015, pp. 148–149; Allen 2016, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 53.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 74.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 78.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 178; Allen 2016, p. 78.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, pp. 148, 150–151; Allen 2016, p. 73.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 73.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. xiii.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. xiii; Allen 2016, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 21; Muñoz 2013, p. 58; Suvorova 2015, p. 154; Allen 2016, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 155; Allen 2016, p. 76.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 21; Muñoz 2013, p. 59; Suvorova 2015, p. 156.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 22; Muñoz 2013, p. 59; Allen 2016, p. 77.
- ^ "Pakistani Crowd Hails Return Of Exiled Opposition Leader". Washington Post. 11 April 1986.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, pp. 20–21; Talbot 2009, p. 262; Suvorova 2015, pp. 158–162; Allen 2016, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 21.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 22; Suvorova 2015, p. 163; Allen 2016, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 81.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 22; Allen 2016, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, pp. 38–40; Bhatia 2008, pp. 28, 29; Suvorova 2015, p. 166; Allen 2016, pp. 84–86.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 84.
- ^ Bhargava 1990, p. 41; Lamb 1991, p. 6; Muñoz 2013, p. 56; Suvorova 2015, pp. 169–170; Allen 2016, p. 87.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 170; Allen 2016, p. 87.
- ^ a b c Allen 2016, p. 87.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 88; Muñoz 2013, p. 56.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 86.
- ^ "Opposition Chief Bhutto Of Pakistan Bears A Son". Washington Post. Associated Press. 21 September 1988.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 30.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 22; Allen 2016, p. 89.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 53; Allen 2016, p. 89.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 53; Allen 2016.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 53.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 88–89; Bhatia 2008, p. 22; Muñoz 2013, pp. 53–54; Allen 2016, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Muñoz 2013, pp. 54–55; Suvorova 2015, p. 179; Allen 2016, p. 90.
- ^ Suvorova 2015, p. 180; Allen 2016, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 45; Bhatia 2008, p. 91; Allen 2016, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 53.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 56.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Allen 2016, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 39; Allen 2016, p. 95.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 39.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 58–59; Allen 2016, p. 95.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 91; Allen 2016, p. 95.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 91; Muñoz 2013, p. 56.
- ^ Lamb 1991, p. 45; Bhatia 2008, pp. 22, 91.
- ^ Bhatia 2008, p. 91.
- ^ Allen 2016, p. 96.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 16, 45; Muñoz 2013, p. 59.
- ^ Lamb 1991, pp. 49–50.
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- ^ Muñoz 2013, p. 145.
- ^ "Pakistan pays tribute to Bhutto". Reuters. 21 June 2008. Retrieved 24 June 2008.
- ^ "Stamps, posters to mark Bhutto's birth anniversary". Hindustan Times. 20 June 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
Bibliography
- Allen, Brooke (2016). Benazir Bhutto: Favored Daughter. Icons Series. New York: Amazon/New Harvest. ISBN 978-0-544-64893-7.
- Bhargava, G. S. (1990). Benazir: Pakistan's New Hope. London: Aspect Publications. ISBN 978-1855290532.
- Houtman, Gustaaf; Ahmed, Akbar (2008). "Benazir Bhutto (1953–2007): A Conversation with Akbar Ahmed". Anthropology Today. 24 (1): 4–5. .
- Ahmed, Mushtaq (2005). Benazir: Politics of Power. Karachi: Royal Book Company.
- Akhter, M. Javaiid (2009). "Politics of Reconciliation and Accommodation: A Study of Benazir Bhutto's First Era Democratic Government 1988–1990". Journal of Political Studies. 16: 63–80.
- Bhatia, Shyam (2008). Goodbye Shahzadi: A Political Biography of Benazir Bhutto. Lotus Collection. ISBN 9788174366580.
- Lamb, Christina (1991). Waiting for Allah: Pakistan's Struggle for Democracy. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-014334-8.
- Muñoz, Heraldo (2013). Getting Away with Murder: Benazir Bhutto's Assassination and the Politics of Pakistan. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393062915.
- Suvorova, Anna (2015). Benazir Bhutto: A Multidimensional Portrait. Karachi: Oxford University Press Pakistan. ISBN 978-0-19-940172-7.
- Talbot, Ian (2009). Pakistan: A Modern History (third ed.). London: C. Hurst and Co. ISBN 978-1850659891.
Further reading
- Ahmad, Ejaz (1993). Benazir Bhutto's Foreign Policy: A Study of Pakistan's Relations with Major Powers. Lahore: Classic. OCLC 500211388.
- Akhund, Iqbal (2000). Trial and Error: The Advent and Eclipse of Benazir Bhutto. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-579160-0.
- Anderson, Mercedes Padrino (2004). Benazir Bhutto. Chelsea House Pub. ISBN 978-0-7910-7732-0.
- Bazmī, Mumtāz Ḥusain (1996). Zindānon̲ se aivānon̲ tak (in Urdu). Lahore: al-Hamd Pablikeshanz. OCLC 38566011.
- Bouchard, Elizabeth (1992). Benazir Bhutto: Prime Minister. Blackbirch Press. ISBN 978-1-56711-027-2.
- Doherty, Katherine M.; Craig A. Doherty (1990). Benazir Bhutto. Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0-531-10936-6.
- Englar, Mary (2007). Benazir Bhutto: Pakistani Prime Minister and Activist. Coughlan Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7565-1798-4.
- Fathers, M. (1992). Biography of Benazir Bhutto. W. H. Allen; Virgin Books. ISBN 978-0-245-54965-6.
- Haidar, Sayyid Afzal (1996). Bhutto Trial. Islamabad: National Commission on History and Culture. OCLC 608526783.
- Hughes, Libby (2000). Benazir Bhutto: From Prison to Prime Minister. Backinprint.com. ISBN 978-0-595-00388-4.
- Khuhro, Amir Ahmed (2013). Benazir Bhutto. Life and Trends in Foreign Policy. Saarbrücken, Germany: The Lambert Academic Publishing (LAP) Company. OCLC 864086659.
- Pepper, W. F. (1983). Benazir Bhutto.
- Rafique, Lubina (1994). Benazir & British Press, 1986–1990. Lahore: Gautam Publishers. OCLC 624433794.
- Sansevere-Dreher, Diane (1991). Benazir Bhutto. Skylark. ISBN 978-0-553-15857-1.
- Shaikh, Muhammad Ali (2000). Benazir Bhutto: A Political Biography. Oriental Books Publishing House. ISBN 978-9698534004.
- Siddiqa-Agha, Ayesha (2017). Military Inc.: Inside Pakistan's Military Economy (2nd ed.). London: Pluto Press. ISBN 9780745399027.
- Skard, Torild (2014). "Benazir Bhutto". Women of Power: Half a Century of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers Worldwide. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 978-1-44731-578-0.
External links
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- "Benazir Bhutto – Great South Asian Leader, Ex-Prime Minister of Pakistan", BenazirBhutto.com