Bengal Sultanate
Sultanate of Bengal Shahī Baṅgala ( | |||||||||||||||||||
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Common languages | Persian Bengali Arabic | ||||||||||||||||||
Religion | State religion: Sunni Islam Hinduism[note 2] Minority religions: Hinduism Buddhism | ||||||||||||||||||
Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||
Sultan | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1342–1358 (first) | Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1572–1576 (last) | Daud Khan Karrani | ||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||
• Unification | 1352 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Battle of Raj Mahal | 1572 1576 | ||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Taka | ||||||||||||||||||
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Today part of | Bangladesh India Myanmar Nepal |
The Bengal Sultanate (
The Bengal Sultanate controlled large parts of the eastern subcontinent during its five dynastic periods, reaching its peak under
The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a prosperous kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style.[9] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal.[15]
History
Background (13th and 14th centuries)
Bengal was gradually absorbed into the
Early Bengal Sultanate (14th and 15th centuries)
Ilyas Shah established his capital in
Ilyas Shah founded the
Sikandar Shah's reign lasted three decades. The
Bengal became the eastern frontier kingdom among medieval Islamic states.
The third Sultan
Rise of nativists (15th century)
During the early 15th century, the Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged by
Nine kings ruled Bengal from Pandua over the course of ten decades. They built palaces, forts, bridges, mosques, and mausoleums.[30] Chinese envoy Ma Huan described the city at the time in his travel accounts, which state that "the city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well-arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods". Pandua was an export center for cloth and wine. At least six varieties of fine muslin and four types of wine were found in Pandua. High-quality paper was produced from the bark of Pandua's mulberry trees.[31] Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal shifted the capital from Pandua to Gaur in 1450. One of the probable reasons behind the move was a change in the course of nearby rivers.[32]
The reign of Mahmud Shah witnessed greater control over the
Regional empire (15th and 16th centuries)
Embassies from
Decline (16th century)
The absorption of Bengal into the
The
Administration
The Bengal Sultanate was an absolute monarchy, and took influence from Persianate traditions. Its revenue system was maintained in the Bengali language throughout the course of its history.[49] The government employed both Muslims and Hindus, promoting a form of religious pluralism.[50] In addition to the royal family and government body, the Sultan also relied on the support of the ulama (Islamic scholars).[51]
The Sultanate was divided into administrative subdivisions such as arsa and iqlim, which were further divided into mahals,
Mint towns
Mint towns consisted of royal and provincial capitals where taka coins were minted, thus developing the areas as important economic urban centres within the Sultanate. With the expansion of the empire, the number of mint towns increased gradually. The following is a partial listing of mint towns:[53]
- Jannatabad (Lakhnauti)
- Muzzamabad (Sonargaon)
- Ghiyaspur (Mymensingh)
- Satgaon
- Firuzabad (Hazrat Pandua)
- Shahr-i-Naw (Hazrat Pandua)
- Fathabad (Faridpur)
- Chatgaon (Chittagong)
- Mahmudabad (Jessore and Nadia)
- Barbakaabad (Dinajpur)
- Muzaffarabad (Pandua)
- Muhammadabad
- Husaynabad (24 Parganas)
- Chandrabad (Murshidabad district)
- Nusratabad (Dinajpur district)
- Khalifatabad/Badarpur (Bagerhat district)
- Sharifabad (Birbhum district)
- Khwaspur Tandah (Malda district)
- Rotaspur (Bihar)
Vassal states
Arakan
In the southeast, Arakan was a prominent vassal of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1430, the Bengal Sultanate restored the Arakanese throne in Mrauk U after driving out Burmese invaders who came from Bagan. The Kingdom of Mrauk U paid tributes to the Sultan of Bengal for a sustained period, with the timeframe ranging between estimates of a century or a few decades.[54][4] Arakanese rulers replicated the Sultan's governing techniques, including adopting the title of Shah and minting coins in Arabic and Bengali inscriptions. A close cultural and commercial relationship developed across the Bay of Bengal.[55] Eventually, Arakan asserted its independence. The Kingdom of Mrauk U became a formidable coastal power.
Chandradwip
In southern Bengal, the island of Chandradwip hosted remnants of the pre-Islamic Hindu Deva dynasty. The kingdom was a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate until the reign of the Hussain Shahi dynasty, when it was formally annexed by the sultanate.[56][57]
Pratapgarh
In the northeastern Barak Valley, the ruler Bazid of the Pratapgarh Kingdom declared himself as a Sultan on par with the Sultan of Bengal. This invited the retribution of Alauddin Husain Shah, who dispatched Sarwar Khan to suppress the newly formed sultanate in Pratapgarh. Bazid was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Bengal. He was also made to relinquish his claims over Sylhet, which was under direct Sultanate rule.[58][59]
Tripura
In the east, Tripura was vital to Bengal for the supply of gold, silver and other commodities. Tripura had coarse gold mines and mountain trade networks linked to the Far East. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I assume the Tripuri throne. Tripura was a prominent vassal of Bengal.[54][60][61]
Orissa
In the southwest, Orissa was prominent in the military history of the Bengal Sultanate. The first Bengali Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Orissa and extended his realm up to Chilika Lake. He raided Jajpur and Cuttack. Ilyas Shah returned to Bengal with plunders from Orissa, including 44 elephants.[62] During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, Orissa was a vassal state of Bengal.[54][63] Northern Orissa was directly ruled by Bengal. During the Karrani dynasty, Orissa was the scene of the Battle of Tukaroi and the Treaty of Cuttack between the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate in 1575.[citation needed]
Military
The Sultans had a well-organised army, including cavalry, artillery, infantry and war elephants; and a navy. Due to the riverine geography and climate, it was not feasible to use cavalry throughout the year in Bengal. The cavalry was probably the weakest component of the Bengal Sultanate's army, as the horses had to be imported from foreign countries. The artillery was an important section. Portuguese historian João de Barros opined that the military supremacy of Bengal over Arakan and Tripura was due to its efficient artillery. The artillery used cannons and guns of various sizes.[64] The paiks formed the vital part of the Bengal infantry during this period. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The particular battle array of the foot-soldiers who used bows, arrows and guns attracted the attention of Babur.[64]
War elephants played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants were also used for the movement of the armed personnel. In riverine Bengal the usefulness of elephants, though very slow, could not be minimised. The navy was of prime necessity in riverine Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country for a period of six months whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the other half of the year. Since the time of Iwaz Khalji, who first organised a naval force in Islamic Bengal, the war boats played an important role in the political affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty had various responsibilities, including shipbuilding, river transport, to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; to recruit seamen; to patrol the rivers and to collect tolls at ghats. The efficiency of the navy eroded during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The Sultans also built forts, including temporary mud walled forts.[64]
Bengal–Delhi Wars
In 1353, the Sultan of Delhi attacked the newly formed Bengal Sultanate. After the siege of Ekdala Fort, Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Delhi. In 1359, Delhi again invaded Bengal after the previous peace treaty collapsed. However, negotiations ultimately resulted in a new treaty in which Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal.[20] The Bengal Sultans also received support from South Indian allies. During the 16th century, the Lodi dynasty of Delhi again attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Sultan of Jaunpur. The Lodis eventually agreed to a peace treaty with Bengal.
Bengal–Jaunpur War
The Jaunpur Sultanate attacked Bengal during the 15th century. With diplomatic help from Ming China and the Timurid ruler of Herat, Bengal fended off the Jaunpuri invasion.[65][66]
Campaigns in Arakan and Assam
Arakan and the
During Husain Shah's rule, Bengali control over Assam reached its zenith. Under the military command of Shah Ismail Ghazi, the Bengali army overthrew the Kamata Kingdom's Hindu Khen dynasty in 1498, extending the Sultanate as far as Hajo and preparing to advance towards central Assam. Assamese Bhuyans eventually overthrew the local administrations within a few years and restored local rule.[68]
Sher Shah Suri's invasion
Bengal was overwhelmed during the pan-Indian invasion of Sher Shah Suri and became part of the Suri Empire. The invasion prompted the Mughal Empire to occupy parts of Bengal. Both the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate were overrun by the Suri forces. Bengal regained its independence after Suri governors rebelled and re-established the sultanate.
Bengal–Mughal Wars
The first Mughal emperor Babur turned his sights on Bengal after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Bengal reached a peace treaty with Babur. During the invasion of Sher Shah Suri, the second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied Gaur. The third Mughal emperor Akbar launched a war against Bengal at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575. Akbar finally defeated the last Sultan of Bengal at the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576.
Economy
The economy of the Bengal Sultanate inherited earlier aspects of the Delhi Sultanate, including mint towns, a salaried bureaucracy and the
The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to Delhi, which ceased after Bengali independence and stopped the outflow of wealth.
A vigorous riverine shipbuilding tradition existed in Bengal. The shipbuilding tradition is evidenced in the sultanate's naval campaigns in the Ganges delta. The trade between Bengal and the Maldives, based on rice and cowry shells, was probably done on Arab-style baghlah ships. Chinese accounts point to Bengali ships being prominent in Southeast Asian waters. A vessel from Bengal, probably owned by the Sultan of Bengal, could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. Bengali ships were the largest vessels plying in those decades in Southeast Asian waters.[73]
All large business transactions were done in terms of silver taka. Smaller purchases involved
Europeans & Ming Chinese referred to Bengal as "the richest country to trade with".
Foreign relations
The Bengal Sultanate had robust
In the Islamic world, the sultanate pledged allegiance to the contemporary
Sultan
In Africa, Sultan
Within the subcontinent, Bengal had both tense and peaceful relations with the Delhi Sultanate and the Jaunpur Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate initially received tributes from the Bengal Sultanate between 1353 and 1359. Tributes stopped after a war and peace treaty in 1359. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam sent envoys to the neighboring Jaunpur Sultanate. He sent elephants as gifts to Sultan Malik Sarwar Khwajah-i-Jahan.[87] The two sultanates fought a war between 1415 and 1420. The end of the war brought a long period of peace between the neighbouring states. In 1494, the Jaunpuri Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was given refuge in Bengal after being defeated by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi.[43]
On the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate became influential in the control of Arakan.
Historians have focused on Bengal's relations with Ming China during the early 15th century. For example, Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal During the Fifteenth Century chronicles the relationship between the Bengal Sultanate and Ming China.
Culture and society
The
Bengal received settlers from North India, the Middle East and Central Asia. They included Turks, Afghans, Persians and Arabs.[95] An important migrant community were Persians. Many Persians in Bengal were teachers, lawyers, scholars and clerics.[96] Mercenaries were widely imported for domestic, military and political service. One particular group of mercenaries were the Abyssinians.[49]
Arts
Literature and painting
Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language by the 15th century. By the turn of the 16th century, a vernacular literature based on concepts of
And with the three washers [cups of wine], this dispute is going on.
All the parrots [poets] of India have fallen into a sugar shattering situation (become excited)
That this Persian candy [ode], to Bangalah [Bengal] is going on.
-An excerpt of a poem jointly penned by Hafez and Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah in the 14th century.[97]
With Persian as an
Manuscript paintings depict the fashion and architecture of the Bengal Sultanate. Persian manuscripts with paintings are a key artistic hallmark of the Bengal Sultanate. One of the best-known examples of this heritage is the Sharafnama published by Sultan Nusrat Shah in the middle of the 16th century. It includes epic poetry by Nizami Ganjavi about the conquests of Alexander the Great.[98][99]
In the 15th century, the court scholar
Hindu poets from the period included Maladhar Basu, Bipradas Pipilai and Vijay Gupta.
Architecture
A majority of the Bengal Sultanate's mint towns and surviving structures are found in Bangladesh. These structures have been studied in the book Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh by Perween Hasan, who completed her PhD at Harvard University and has taught Islamic history and culture at the University of Dhaka.[102][103] The Indian state of West Bengal is home to two of the sultanate's former capitals Gaur and Pandua, as well as several notable structures including a watchtower, fortified walls and mausolea. The oldest mosque in the Indian state of Assam dates from the Bengal Sultanate. A 15th-century sultanate-era mosque lies in ruins and covered with vegetation in Myanmar's Rakhine State.[104]
Urban architecture
Cities in the Bengal Sultanate had stately medieval architecture, particularly in the royal capitals of Gaur and Pandua. In 1500, the royal capital of Gaur had the fifth-largest urban population in the world after Beijing, Vijayanagara, Cairo and Canton. It had a population of 200,000 (at the time, the global population is estimated to have ranged between 400 and 500 million).[13][105][106][107] The Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described houses in Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards and gardens. The city had a citadel, durbar, watchtowers, canals, bridges, large gateways, and a city wall.[108] The royal palace was divided into three compartments. The first compartment was the royal court. The second was the living quarter of the Sultan. The third was the harem. A high wall enclosed the palace. A moat surrounded the palace on three sides and was connected to the Ganges. The city of Pandua developed from a small hamlet into a military garrison. It included imperial mosques and mausolea. Urban architecture in the Bengal Sultanate was based on Arab, Bengali, Persian, Indo-Turkish, and Byzantine influences. A glimpse of houses in the Bengal Sultanate can be seen in the Iskandar Nama (Book of Alexander) published by Sultan Nusrat Shah.[98] There were significant indigenous developments. The Bengal roofs began appearing in concrete forms during the 15th century. These roofs were later widely replicated in the Mughal Empire and the Rajput kingdoms of the northwestern Indian subcontinent.
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Dakhil Doorway
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Baisgazi Wall was a city wall
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The Firoz Minar was a watchtower
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Fading enameled bricks on Gumti Gate
Mosque architecture
According to Perween Hasan in a book edited by
Imperial mosques had an in-built throne for the Sultan. These thrones are termed as Badshah-e-Takht (King's Throne). The Sultans sat on the elevated throne and addressed his subjects below. The Sultans also administered justice and managed government affairs while sitting on these thrones. Mosques served as royal courts.[109] Mosques across the Bengal Sultanate had these thrones. The Sultans traveled from one town to another and hosted royal court activities in mosques with a Badshah-e-Takht. The Badshah-e-Takht in Kusumba Mosque is heavily decorated with a small intrinsically designed mihrab. The Adina Mosque has one of the largest royal galleries in the subcontinent.[109]
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Badshah-e-Takht in Adina Mosque
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Multiple mihrabs in Darasbari Mosque
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Pointed arches and a Bengal roof in Choto Sona Mosque
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Engaged corner tower in Nine Dome Mosque
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Terracotta arabesque of Khania Dighi Mosque
Tomb architecture
Mausoleums of the Bengal Sultanate are an important architectural hallmark. Initially,
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Eklakhi Mausoleum in Pandua
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Bengal roof on the Tomb of Fateh Khan in Gaur
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Tombs of Choto Sona Mosque
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Cemetery of Bagha Mosque
Legacy
The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate has influenced modern architecture in Bangladesh. The sultanate era inspired the Baitur Rauf Mosque, which won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2016.[113]
List of dynasties
- Ilyas Shahi dynasty (1342–1414)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah | 1342–1358 | Became the first sole ruler of whole Satgaon and Lakhnauti .
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Sikandar Shah | 1358–1390 | Assassinated by his son and successor, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah |
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah | 1390–1411 | |
Saifuddin Hamza Shah | 1411–1413 | |
Muhammad Shah bin Hamza Shah | 1413 | Assassinated by his father's slave Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah on the orders of the landlord of Dinajpur, Raja Ganesha |
Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah | 1413–1414 | Assassinated by Raja Ganesha |
Alauddin Firuz Shah I | 1414 | Son of Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah. Assassinated by Raja Ganesha |
- House of Raja Ganesha (1414–1435)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Raja Ganesha | 1414–1415 | |
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah | 1415–1416 | Son of Raja Ganesha and converted into Islam |
Raja Ganesha | 1416–1418 | Second Phase |
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah | 1418–1433 | Second Phase |
Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah | 1433–1435 |
- Restored Ilyas Shahi dynasty (1435–1487)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah I
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1435–1459 | |
Rukunuddin Barbak Shah
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1459–1474 | |
Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah | 1474–1481 | |
Sikandar Shah II
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1481 | |
Jalaluddin Fateh Shah | 1481–1487 |
- Habshi rule (1487–1494)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Shahzada Barbak | 1487 | |
Saifuddin Firuz Shah | 1487–1489 | |
Mahmud Shah II | 1489–1490 | |
Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah | 1490–1494 |
- Hussain Shahi dynasty (1494–1538)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Alauddin Hussain Shah
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1494–1518 | |
Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah | 1518–1533 | |
Alauddin Firuz Shah II | 1533 | |
Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah | 1533–1538 |
- Governors under Suri rule (1539–1554)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Khidr Khan
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1539–1541 | Declared independence in 1541 and was replaced |
Qazi Fazilat | 1541–1545 | |
Muhammad Khan Sur | 1545–1554 | Declared independence upon the death of Islam Shah Suri |
- Muhammad Shahi dynasty (1554–1564)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Muhammad Khan Sur | 1554–1555 | Declared independence and styled himself as Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah |
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah II | 1555–1561 | |
Ghiyasuddin Jalal Shah | 1561–1563 | |
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah III | 1563–1564 |
- Karrani dynasty (1564–1576)
Name | Reign | Notes |
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Taj Khan Karrani | 1564–1566 | |
Sulaiman Khan Karrani | 1566–1572 | Defeated by the Mughal Gajpatis & Bhurshut allianced marry his daughter to Bhurshut Maharaj brother and his conversion to Islam
Rise of Kalapahar |
Bayazid Khan Karrani | 1572 | |
Daud Khan Karrani | 1572–1576 |
Family Trees
Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (1342–1414)
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Ganesha Dynasty (1414–1436)
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Restored Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (1436–1487)
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Habshi Rule (1487–1494)
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Hussain Shahi Dynasty (1494–1538)
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Muhammad Shahi Dynasty (1554–1564)
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Karrani Dynasty (1564–1576)
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See also
History of Bangladesh |
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Bangladesh portal |
Part of a series on the |
Bengal Sultanate |
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Notes
- ^ Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah held his court in Sonargaon.
- ^ Under Raja Ganesha, from 1414 to 1415 and again from 1416 to 1418
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- ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2003). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. p. 151.
- ^ Embree, Ainslie (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Asia Society. p. 149.
- ^ a b "Gaur and Pandua Architecture". Sahapedia. Archived from the original on 13 November 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
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- ^ a b "Bar chart race: the most populous cities through time", Financial Times, archived from the original on 17 November 2021, retrieved 31 December 2019
- ^ Kapadia, Aparna (30 March 2019). "Gujarat's medieval cities were once the biggest in the world – as a viral video reminds us". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
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Turk-Afghan Rule: Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji's invasion to Bengal marked the advent of Turk-Afghan rule in Bengal.
- ^ Chandra, Satish (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526). p. 226.
Although the Afghans formed a large group in the army of the Delhi Sultanat, only few Afghan nobles had been accorded important positions. That is why Bakhtiyar Khalji who was part - Afghan had to seek his fortune in Bihar and Bengal.
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- ^ Minhaj-ud-din, Maulana Abu' Umar-i-Usman (1881). Tabakat-i-Nasiri translated from Original Persian texts by Maj. H. G. Raverty. Kolkata: The Asiatic Society. pp. 572–595.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8108-8024-5.
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Further reading
- Yegar, Moshe (2002). Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-7391-0356-2.
- Hussain, Syed Ejaz (2003). The Bengal Sultanate: Politics, Economy and Coins, A.D. 1205–1576. Manohar. ISBN 978-81-7304-482-3.
- The Grammar of Sultanate Mosque in Bengal Architecture, Nujaba Binte Kabir (2012)