Berbera
Berbera
Barbara ( Arabic) | |
---|---|
City | |
UTC+3 (EAT ) |
Berbera (
In antiquity, Berbera was part of a chain of commercial port cities along the Somali seaboard. During the early modern period, Berbera was the most important place of trade in the Somali Peninsula.
History
Antiquity
Berbera was part of the classical
Berbera preserves the ancient name of the coast along the southern shore of the
"After Avalites there is another market-town, better than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are imported into this place the things already mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe, dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver coin, but not much. There are exported from these places myrrh, a little frankincense, (that known as far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and slaves, but rarely."
— Chap.8.[9]
Middle Ages
In
Legendary Arab explorer
Berbera was an important and well built settlement that served as a major harbor port for several successive
Berbera, along with Zeila, were the two most important ports situated inside the Adal Sultanate, and they provided vital political and commercial links with the wider Islamic World:
To Adea belongs a very good Port, call’d Barraboa, whoſe chief City is Arat, obeys a King, who is an enemy to the Abiſſines. Barraboa and Zeila are places of great Trade, by reaſon of the conveniency of their Ports, towards the entry into the Red-Sea.[15] |
To Adel belongs a very good port, called Barbara, whose chief city is Harar, obeys a King, who is an enemy to the Abyssinians. Barbara and Zeila are places of great trade, by reason of the conveniency of their ports, towards the entry into the Red Sea. |
Along with other ports and settlements in East Africa, explorers
Duarte Barbosa's brief account of Berbera:
Further on, on the same coast, is a town of the Moors [Muslims] called Barbara; it has a port, at which many ships of Adeni and Cambay touch with their merchandise, and from there those of Cambay carry away much gold, and ivory, and other things, and those of Aden take many provisions, meat, honey, and wax, because, as they say, it is a very abundant country.[18]
Not long after their departure from Zeila and Berbera, the Portuguese fleet under Lopo Soares de Albergaria and António de Saldanha sacked both port towns between 1516 and 1518.[19]
According to
Precolonialism
One of the earliest precolonial accounts comes from Ibrahim Punkar, who wrote a memoir in 1801 and letter in 1809 to the Governor of Bombay
One certainty about Berbera over the following centuries was that it was the site of an annual fair, held between October and April, which Mordechai Abir describes as "among the most important commercial events of the east coast of Africa."[22] The major Somali sub-clans of the Isaaq in Somaliland, caravans from Harar and the interior, and Banyan merchants from Porbandar, Mangalore and Mumbai gathered to trade. All of this was kept secret from European merchants.[23] Lieutenant C. J. Cruttenden, who wrote a memoir describing this portion of the Somali coast dated 12 May 1848, provided an account of the Berbera fair and an account of the historic environs of the town: "an aqueduct of stone and chunam, some nine miles [15 km] in length", which had once emptied into a presently dry reservoir adjacent to the ruins of a mosque. He explored part of its course from the reservoir past a number of tombs built of stones taken from the aqueduct to reach a spring, above which lay "the remains of a small fort or tower of chunam and stone ... on the hill-side immediately over the spring." Cruttenden noted that in "style it was different to any houses now found on the Somali coast", and concluded with noting the presence in "the neighbourhood of the fort above mentioned [an] abundance of broken glass and pottery ... from which I infer that it was a place of considerable antiquity; but, though diligent search was made, no traces of inscriptions could be discovered."[24]
Berbera was the most important port in the Somali Peninsula between the 18th–19th centuries. For centuries, Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in Arabia and the Indian subcontinent. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on Berbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from.
According to a trade journal published in 1856, Berbera was described as “the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.”:
“The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market.”[28]
Historically, the port of Berbera was controlled indigenously between the
Berbera commanded most of the trade traffic with the Somali and Ethiopian interiors. The two main caravan trade routes from Berbera extended to
In addition,
Berbera held an annual fair during the cool rain-free months between October and April. This long drawn out market handled immense quantities of coffee, gum Arabic, myrrh and other commodities. These goods in the early nineteenth century were almost exclusively handled by Somalis who, Salt says, had "a kind of navigation act by which they exclude the Arab vessels from their ports and bring the produce of their country either to Aden or Mocha in their own dows."[36]
In much of the 19th century, the trade between Berbera and Aden was so important to the later that when disturbances effected the Berbera trading season, Aden too suffered as a result. According to Captain Haines, who was then the colonial administrator of Aden (1839-1854), 80% of Aden's revenue in 1848 was derived from duties charged on imported goods from Berbera. Additionally, most of the coffee imported by Mocha (centre of the coffee trade in early modern times) arrived via Somali merchants from Berbera, who procured the coffee beans from the environs of Harar.[37] Although the coffee beans were grown in Harar (present-day Ethiopia), the coffee was named Berbera Coffee in the international market, and the beans were considered superior to the locally grown varieties in Yemen.[28]
The British explorer Richard Burton made two visits to this port, and his second visit was marred by an attack on his camp by a group of local Somali warriors, and although Burton was able to escape to Aden, one of his companions was killed.[38] Burton, recognizing the importance of the port city wrote:
In the first place, Berberah is the true key of the Red Sea, the centre of East African traffic, and the only safe place for shipping upon the western Erythraean shore, from Suez to Guardafui. Backed by lands capable of cultivation, and by hills covered with pine and other valuable trees, enjoying a comparatively temperate climate, with a regular although thin monsoon, this harbour has been coveted by many a foreign conqueror. Circumstances have thrown it as it were into our arms, and, if we refuse the chance, another and a rival nation will not be so blind.[39]
By 1869, a sub-clan of the Reer Ahmed Nur (Ayyal Ahmed, Habr Awal) were operating a fort in the port town and it was manned by several hired guards armed with
Battle
When a British vessel named the Mary Anne attempted to dock in Berbera's port in 1825 it was attacked and multiple members of the crew were massacred by the Habr Awal. In response the
In the 1830s, the
British Somaliland
After signing successive treaties with the various clans of the northern Somali coast between 1884 and 1886, the British established a
Despite Berbera's strategic location, being the only port with a sheltered harbor on the southern side of the
In August 1940, during the
The British Somaliland protectorate gained its independence on 26 June 1960 as the
Modernity
In the post-independence period, Berbera was administered as the part of the North-Western province of the Somali Republic. It served as the main livestock port of the republic and in the 1970s and 1980s, nearly all of the livestock exports went out through the port of Berbera via Isaaq livestock traders. The entire livestock exports accounted to upwards of 90% of the Somali Republic's entire export figures in a given year, and Berbera's exports alone provided over 75% of the nation's recorded foreign currency income at the time.[59][60] The main consumers were the wealthy gulf states and Saudi Arabia in particular.
As early as 1962, The Soviet Union agreed to assist the nascent Somali Republic towards the construction of modern port facilities and a military base, which was completed in 1969 and was called on by sixteen Soviet Ships in 1971.[61] Coinciding with the Ogaden War between The Somali Republic and Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviets left Berbera and the nation as a whole due to a disagreement, leaving the United States to arrive with a $40 million investment and new health facilities in 1980. By 1985, the city had an estimated population of 70,000, with the outbreak of the Somali National Movement (SNM) ousted government troops from the city following aerial bombardments and extrajudicial killings inflicted on the population by the government. With the downfall of General Siad Barre in 1991, the Northern region of the Somali Republic, declared the state of Somaliland, of Somalia. A slow process of infrastructural reconstruction subsequently began in Berbera and other towns in the region.[62]
The city remains a competitive regional port and in 2016 a US$442 million agreement was reached between DP World and the government of Somaliland.[63] The deal involves enhancing and operating the regional trade and logistics hub at the Port of Berbera.[64] The project, which will be phased in, will also involve the setting up of a free zone.
On 1 March 2018, Ethiopia became a major shareholder following an agreement with DP World and the Somaliland Port Authority. DP World holds a 51% stake in the project, Somaliland 30% and Ethiopia the remaining 19%. As part of the agreement, the government of Ethiopia will invest in infrastructure to develop the Berbera Corridor as a trade gateway for the inland country, which is one of the fastest growing countries in the world. There are also plans to construct an additional berth at the Port of Berbera, in line with the Berbera master plan, which DP World has started implementing, while adding new equipment to further improve efficiencies and productivity of the port.[65][2]
On 24 June 2021, The CEO of DP World officially announced the second phase of the Berbera port upgrade during the inauguration ceremony for the completion of the first phase. The second phase includes extending the new quay from 400 to 1,000 metres, and adding seven more ship-to-shore gantry cranes, bringing the total to ten and enabling the expanded port to handle up to two million TEU containers a year.[66]
The agreement comes as part of a larger government-to-government memorandum of understanding between Government of the United Arab Emirates and the Government of Somaliland to further strengthen their strategic ties.[67] Somalia's attempts to obstruct and block the deal were frustrated and failed to stop the project from commencing.[68]
A rail link to Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, has remained a point of discussion and may materialize.[69] On January 1, 2024, it was announced that Ethiopia signed an agreement with Somaliland to utilize Berbera's sea port.[70]
Geography
Location and habitat
Berbera is located in coastal region of northern Somalia. An old port city, it has the only sheltered harbour on the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. The landscape around town, along with Somaliland's coastal lowlands, is semi-arid land.
Popular local beaches, such as Bathela and Batalale, have earned the city the nickname Beach City.
Climate
Berbera features a hot arid climate (Köppen BWh). It has long, sweltering summers and short, hot winters, as well as very little rainfall. Average high temperatures consistently exceed 40 °C or 104 °F during nearly four months of summertime (June, July, August and September). Daytime heat on summer nights is high, with average low temperatures of around 30 °C or 86 °F. During the coolest months of the year, average high temperatures remain above 29 °C or 84.2 °F and average low temperatures also surpass 20 °C or 68 °F. Although rainfall is low, the relative humidity is very high throughout the year and the atmosphere is simultaneously moist. The combination of the desert heat and the excessive moisture make apparent temperatures reach extremely high levels. Annual average rainfall is minimal, with only 52 millimetres (2.0 inches) of precipitation. There are between 5 and 8 rainy days on average annually. Bright sunshine likely occur during about 84% of the total daytime hours and average annual cloudiness is very low.
Climate data for Berbera | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 35.3 (95.5) |
35.0 (95.0) |
35.0 (95.0) |
42.2 (108.0) |
47.3 (117.1) |
49.1 (120.4) |
47.7 (117.9) |
46.7 (116.1) |
46.0 (114.8) |
41.7 (107.1) |
36.7 (98.1) |
36.1 (97.0) |
49.1 (120.4) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 27.9 (82.2) |
29.2 (84.6) |
30.7 (87.3) |
31.0 (87.8) |
35.7 (96.3) |
42.8 (109.0) |
42.9 (109.2) |
41.9 (107.4) |
39.7 (103.5) |
33.1 (91.6) |
30.0 (86.0) |
28.6 (83.5) |
34.5 (94.1) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
26.1 (79.0) |
28.3 (82.9) |
31.1 (88.0) |
33.5 (92.3) |
36.1 (97.0) |
35.6 (96.1) |
33.3 (91.9) |
28.8 (83.8) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.7 (80.1) |
30.0 (86.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 21.3 (70.3) |
21.6 (70.9) |
23.3 (73.9) |
25.2 (77.4) |
27.7 (81.9) |
31.0 (87.8) |
31.8 (89.2) |
31.1 (88.0) |
29.3 (84.7) |
24.0 (75.2) |
22.2 (72.0) |
21.6 (70.9) |
25.8 (78.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | 14.4 (57.9) |
15.6 (60.1) |
16.7 (62.1) |
18.9 (66.0) |
20.6 (69.1) |
22.2 (72.0) |
20.6 (69.1) |
20.0 (68.0) |
17.8 (64.0) |
16.7 (62.1) |
16.1 (61.0) |
15.0 (59.0) |
14.4 (57.9) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 8 (0.3) |
2 (0.1) |
5 (0.2) |
12 (0.5) |
8 (0.3) |
1 (0.0) |
1 (0.0) |
2 (0.1) |
1 (0.0) |
2 (0.1) |
5 (0.2) |
5 (0.2) |
52 (2.0) |
Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 5.2 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
78 | 79 | 79 | 81 | 73 | 49 | 44 | 45 | 51 | 72 | 74 | 76 | 67 |
Percent possible sunshine | 80 | 80 | 80 | 83 | 83 | 87 | 80 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 80 | 83 |
Source 1: Arab Meteorology Book (average temperatures, humidity and precipitation),[71] Deutscher Wetterdienst (precipitation days, 1908–1950 and extremes)[72] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Food and Agriculture Organization: Somalia Water and Land Management (percent sunshine)[73] |
Demographics
Historically, Berbera was inhabited by the Reer Ahmed Nuh and Yunis Nuh lineages of the Sa'ad Musa, Habr Awal.[74]
In more recent times, the
Education
There are 30 primary schools operating in Berbera city totaling 63,641 students. The broader Berbera district has 49 schools serving 90,310 students.[78]
Economy
A number of products are exported through the Port of Berbera, including livestock, gum arabic, frankincense, and myrrh. Its seaborne trade is chiefly with Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, and Aden in Yemen, 240 kilometres (150 miles) to the north.[79] Additionally, goods from Ethiopia are also exported through the facility.[80] The seaside boasts watersport tourist activity such as scuba diving, snorkeling, surfing and coral reefs.[81]
Transportation
Berbera is the terminus of roads from
For air transportation, the city is served by the Berbera Airport. It has an extensive 4,140-metre (13,580-foot) runway.[85]
References
- ^ PopulationStat[permanent dead link] Population of Berbera, city and urban area
- ^ ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
- ^ "Issue 270". Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
- ISBN 9780755635191.
- ^ Prichard, J. C. (1837). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races. Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper. pp. 160.
- ^ Cahoon, Ben. "Somalia". www.worldstatesmen.org.
- ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.835
- ^ Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver
- ^ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Schoff's 1912 translation
- ^ I.M. Lewis, "The Somali Conquest of the Horn of Africa", Journal of African History, 1 (1960), p. 217
- ^ Identifiants et Référentiels Sudoc Pour L'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche - Abū al-Fidā (1273-1331) (in French)
- ^ Lewicki, Tadeusz (1974). Arabic External Sources for the History of Africa to the South of Sahara. Curzon Press. p. 33.
- ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1.
- ^ I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 21
- ^ Geography Rectified: or, a Description of the World in all its Kingdoms, Provinces, Countries, …, 1688, p. 528
- ^ di Vartherma, Ludicovo (1863). The Travels of Ludovico Di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508 (translated). Hakluyt Society. pp. 88–90.
- ^ Leo, Africanus (2010). The history and description of Africa and of the notable things therein contained (translated). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Stanley, Henry Edward John (1866). A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century by Duarte Barbosa. The Hakluyt Society. p. 17.
Note: The use of "Moor" in this context bares no relevance to the Moors of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Rather, this naming is used to describe the local Muslim inhabitants of the settlement.
- ^ Trimingham, J. Spencer (1976). Islam in Ethiopia. London. p. 77.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Özbaran, Salih (1994). The Ottoman response to European expansion: studies on Ottoman-Portuguese relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman administration in the Arab lands during the sixteenth century. Istanbul: Isis Press. pp. 108–109.
- ^ British East India Company (1811). Survey of the East Coast of Africa British Library: India Office Records and Private Papers. National Archives. pp. 40–50.
- ^ w. Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769-1855). London: Longmans. p. 16.
- ^ Abir, Era of the Princes, p. 17
- ^ C. J. Cruttenden, "Memoir on the Western or Edoor Tribes, Inhabiting the Somali Coast of N.-E. Africa, with the Southern Branches of the Family of Darrood, Resident on the Banks of the Webbe Shebeyli, Commonly Called the River Webbe," Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 19 (1849), pp. 54, 56
- ^ Prichard, J. C. (1837). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races. Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper. pp. 160.
- ^ The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2. 1840. p. 22.
- ^ Pankhurst, R. (1965). Journal of Ethiopian Studies Vol. 3, No. 1. Institute of Ethiopian Studies. p. 51.
- ^ a b Hunt, Freeman (1856). The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34. p. 694.
- ^ Lewis, I.M. (1965). The Modern History of Somaliland: from Nation to State. Praeger. p. 35.
- ^ Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 1849, Volume 8, p. 185.
- ^ Z. H., Kour (1981). The History of Aden, 1839-72. Cass. p. 72.
- ^ Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s. Unesco. 1989. pp. 386.
- ^ Christie (M.D.), James (1876). Cholera Epidemics in East Africa. Macmillan Publishers. pp. 133, 137.
- ^ Christie (M.D.), Cholera Epidemics, p. 145
- ^ Pankhurst, Journal of Ethiopian Studies, p. 44
- ^ Pankhurst, Journal of Ethiopian Studies, p.45
- ^ R. J., Gavin (1975). Aden Under British Rule, 1839-1967. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 53.
- ^ Lewis, A Modern History, p. 36
- ^ Richard Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, Preface
- ^ Precis of Papers Regarding Aden, 1838-1872, India. Foreign and Political Department, pg. 165-165
- ^ ISBN 9780226467917.
- ^ Al Qasimi, Sultan bin Muhammad (1996). رسالة زعماء الصومال إلى الشيخ سلطان بن صقر القاسمي (in Arabic). p. ١٧.
- ISBN 9780859895095.
- JSTOR 41965718.
- ^ Al Qasimi, Sultan bin Muhammad (1996). رسالة زعماء الصومال إلى الشيخ سلطان بن صقر القاسمي (in Arabic). p. ١٢.
- ^ Hugh Chisholm (ed.), The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
- ^ Samatar, Abdi Ismail The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884–1986, Madison: 1989, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 31
- ^ Samatar p. 31
- ^ Samatar, p. 32
- ^ Samatar, Unhappy masses and the challenge of political Islam in the Horn of Africa, Somalia Online [1] retrieved 10-03-27
- ^ Samatar, The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia, p. 42
- ^ McConnell, Tristan (15 January 2009). "The Invisible Country". Virginia Quarterly Review. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ "Berbera-Harrar Railway Survey Vol. 1".
- ^ The Navy Everywhere, 1919. p. 244
- ^ Playfair (1954), p. 178
- ^ Wavell, p. 2724
- ^ a b "Somaliland Marks Independence After 73 Years of British Rule" (fee required). The New York Times. 1960-06-26. p. 6. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
- ^ "How Britain said farewell to its Empire". BBC News. 2010-07-23.
- ^ de Waal, Alex. "CLASS AND POWER IN A STATELESS SOMALIA". ResearchGate.
- ^ Somalia: A Government at War with Its Own People (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1990. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ISBN 978-1498529105.
- ^ Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia edited by Michael Dumper, Bruce E. Stanley Page 93
- ^ "Somaliland and DP World celebrate 30-year concession for $442 million Port of Berbera (Somaliland) – Asoko Insight". Asoko Insight. Retrieved 2017-06-19.
- ^ "Somalia project opens up Africa for DP World". thenational.ae. 30 May 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
- ^ "Ethiopia acquires 19% stake in DP World Berbera Port" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
- ^ "DP World, Somaliland open new terminal at Berbera Port". Archived from the original on 2021-06-24.
- ^ "Dubai's DP World Agrees to Manage Port in Somaliland for 30 Years". Wall Street Journal. 30 May 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ "Can Ethiopia's railway bring peace to Somalia?". BBC. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
- ^ "Ethiopia signs pact to use Somaliland's Red Sea port". Reuters. 2024-01-01. Retrieved 2024-01-01.
- ^ "Appendix I: Meteorological Data" (PDF). Springer. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Berbera / Somalia" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
- ^ "Long term mean monthly sunshine fraction in Somalia". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 2016-10-05. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Lewis, I.M. (1965). The Modern History of Somaliland: from Nation to State. Praeger. pp. 35.
Before this, and prior to the British settlement at Aden in 1839, the Ayyal Yunis and Ayyal Ahmed lineages of the Habr Awal clan had held Berbera and jointly managed its trade, sharing in the profits on all commercial transactions as 'protectors' (abans) of foreign merchants from Arabia and India.
- ^ Center for Creative Solutions (May 31, 2004), Ruin and Renewal: The Story of Somaliland, Hargeisa: Center for Creative Solutions, archived from the original on April 8, 2011, retrieved September 21, 2010,
The 'Iise Muuse clan for whom Berbera and its environs are their traditional area of settlement saw it differently. Retrieved on 2011-12-15.
- ISBN 9781315308173.
- ^ Kluijver, Robert. "KYD3 - Politics in Berbera". Politics and Art from the Edge. Archived from the original on 2022-01-02. Retrieved 2022-01-02.
- ^ "2011/2 Primary School Census Statistics Yearbook" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2018-02-13.
- ^ United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. Special Subcommittee to Inspect Facilities at Berbera, Somalia. (1975). Report of the Special Subcommittee to Inspect Facilities at Berbera, Somalia, to the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Ninety-fourth Congress, first session, July 15, 1975. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office.
- ^ "Ethiopia, Somaliland envisage exploiting Barbara port"[permanent dead link], Ethiopian News Agency, 29 July 2009 (accessed 1 November 2009)
- ^ Somalia attractions, Berbera Seaside retrieved 29 November 2013
- ^ "Istanbul conference on Somalia 21 – 23 May 2010 - Draft discussion paper for Round Table "Transport infrastructure"" (PDF). Government of Somalia. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ISBN 978-1612345864.
- ^ Intercontinental Press Combined with Inprecor, Volume 20, Issues 25-37. Intercontinental Press. 1982. p. 674.
- ISSN 1074-4320.