Bermuda
Bermuda | ||
---|---|---|
British Overseas Territory | ||
Anthem: "God Save the King" | ||
National song: "Hail to Bermuda" | ||
Ethnic groups (2016[2] )
| ||
Demonym(s) |
| |
Government | Parliamentary dependency under a constitutional monarchy | |
• Monarch | Charles III | |
• Governor | Rena Lalgie | |
• Premier | Edward David Burt | |
Legislature | ||
Postal codes | CR01 to CR04, DD01 to DD03, DV01 to DV08, FL01 to FL08, GE01 to GE05, GECX, HM01 to HM20, HS01, HS02, MA01 to MA06, PG01 to PG06, SB01 to SB04, SN01 to SN04, WK01 to WK10[5] | |
ISO 3166 code | BM | |
Internet TLD | .bm | |
Website | https://www.gov.bm/ |
Bermuda (/bərˈmjuːdə/; historically known as the Bermudas or Somers Isles) is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. The closest land outside the territory is in the American state of North Carolina
Bermuda is an archipelago consisting of 181 islands, although the most significant islands are connected by bridges and appear to form one landmass. It has a land area of 54 square kilometres (21 sq mi). Bermuda has a sub-tropical climate, with mild winters and warm summers. Its climate also exhibits oceanic features similar to other coastal areas in the Northern Hemisphere with warm, moist air from the ocean ensuring relatively high humidity and stabilising temperatures. Bermuda lies in Hurricane Alley and thus is prone to severe weather; however, it receives some protection from a coral reef and its position at the north of the belt, which limits the direction and severity of approaching storms.
Bermuda is named after Spanish explorer
Divided into
Etymology
Bermuda is named after the Spanish sailor Juan de Bermúdez, who discovered the islands in 1505,[1] while sailing for Spain from a provisioning voyage to Hispaniola in the ship La Garça.
History
Discovery
Bermuda was discovered in the early 1500s by Spanish explorer
Settlement by the English
For the next century, the island was frequently visited but not settled. The English began to focus on the New World, initially settling in Virginia, starting British colonization in North America, establishing a colony at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Two years later, a flotilla of seven ships left England with several hundred settlers, food, and supplies to relieve the Jamestown colony.[18] However, the flotilla was broken up by a storm and the flagship, the Sea Venture, drove onto Bermuda's reef to prevent her sinking, resulting in the survival of all her passengers and crew.[19][10] The settlers were unwilling to move on, having now heard about the true conditions in Jamestown from the sailors, and made multiple attempts to rebel and stay in Bermuda. They argued that they had a right to stay and establish their own government. The new settlement became a prison labour camp, and built two ships, the Deliverance and the Patience.[20]
In 1612, the English began settlement of the archipelago, officially named Virgineola,[21] with arrival of the ship the Plough. New London (renamed St. George's Town) was settled that year and designated as the colony's first capital.[22][13] It is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World.[22]
In 1615, the colony, which had been renamed the Somers Isles in commemoration of Sir
The archipelago's limited land area and resources led to the creation of what may be the earliest conservation laws of the New World. In 1616 and 1620 acts were passed banning the hunting of certain birds and young tortoises.[25]
Civil War
In 1649, the English Civil War was taking place and King Charles I was beheaded in Whitehall, London. The conflict spilled over into Bermuda, where most of the colonists developed a strong sense of devotion to the Crown. The royalists ousted the Somers Isles Company's Governor and elected John Trimingham as their leader (see Governor of Bermuda). Bermuda's civil war was ended by militias, and dissenters were pushed to settle The Bahamas under William Sayle.[26]
The rebellious royalist colonies of Bermuda, Virginia, Barbados and Antigua, were the subjects of an Act of the Rump Parliament of England.[27] The royalist colonies were also threatened with invasion. The Government of Bermuda eventually reached an agreement with the Parliament of England which retained the status quo in Bermuda.
Later 17th century
In the 17th century, the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding, as it needed Bermudians to farm in order to generate income from the land. The Virginia colony, however, far surpassed Bermuda in quality and quantity of tobacco produced. Bermudians began to turn to maritime trades relatively early in the 17th century, but the Somers Isles Company used all its authority to suppress turning away from agriculture. This interference led to islanders demanding, and receiving, revocation of the company's charter in 1684, and the company was dissolved.[10]
Bermudians rapidly abandoned agriculture for shipbuilding, replanting farmland with the native juniper trees (
Some islanders, especially in St David's, still trace their ancestry to Native Americans, and many more are ignorant of having such ancestry. Hundreds of Native Americans were shipped to Bermuda. The best-known examples were the Algonquian peoples such as (Pequots, Wampanoags, Podunks, Nipmucks, Narragansetts,...), who were exiled from the New England colonies and sold into slavery in the seventeenth century, notably in the aftermaths of the Pequot War and King Philip's War, but some are believed to have been brought from as far away as Mexico.
The American War of Independence
Bermuda's ambivalence towards the American rebellion changed in September 1774, when the
Three American boats, operating from Charlestown, Philadelphia and Newport, sailed to Bermuda, and on 14 August 1775, 100 barrels of gunpowder were taken from the Bermudian magazine while Governor
In June 1776, HMS Nautilus secured the island, followed by HMS Galatea in September. Yet, the two British captains seemed more intent on capturing prize money, causing a severe food shortage on the island until the departure of Nautilus in October. After France's entry into the war in 1778, Henry Clinton refortified the island under the command of Major William Sutherland. As a result, 91 French and American ships were captured in the winter of 1778–1779, bringing the population once again to the brink of starvation. Bermudian trade was severely hampered by the combined efforts of the Royal Navy, the British garrison and loyalist privateers, such that famine struck the island in 1779.[28]: 416–427
Upon the death of George Bruere in 1780, the governorship passed to his son, George Jr., an active loyalist. Under his leadership, smuggling was stopped, and the Bermudian colonial government was populated with like-minded loyalists. Even Henry Tucker abandoned trading with the United States, because of the presence of many privateers.[28]: 428–433
The Bermuda Gazette, Bermuda's first newspaper, began publishing in 1784.[29][30][31] The editor, Joseph Stockdale, had been given financial incentive to move to Bermuda with his family and establish the newspaper. He also provided other printing services and operated Bermuda's first local postal service. The Bermuda Gazette was sold by subscription and delivered to subscribers, with Stockdale's employee also delivering mail for a fee.[32]
19th century
After the American Revolution, the Royal Navy began improving the harbours on the Bermudas. In 1811, work began on the large Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island, which was to serve as the islands' principal naval base guarding the western Atlantic Ocean shipping lanes. To guard the dockyard, the British Army built the Bermuda Garrison, and heavily fortified the archipelago.
During the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States, the British attacks on Washington, D.C., and the Chesapeake were planned and launched from Bermuda, where the headquarters of the Royal Navy's North American Station had recently been moved from Halifax, Nova Scotia.[33]
In 1816, James Arnold, the son of Benedict Arnold, fortified Bermuda's Royal Naval Dockyard against possible US attacks.[34] Today, the National Museum of Bermuda, which incorporates Bermuda's Maritime Museum, occupies the Keep of the Royal Naval Dockyard.
Due to its proximity to the southeastern US coast, Bermuda was frequently used during the
Anglo-Boer War
During the
The New York Times reported an attempted mutiny by Boer prisoners of war en route to Bermuda and that martial law was enacted on Darrell's Island.[36]
The most famous escapee was the Boer prisoner of war Captain
20th and 21st centuries
In the early 20th century Bermuda became a popular destination for American, Canadian and British tourists arriving by sea. The US
A rail line was constructed in Bermuda in the 1920s, opening in 1931 as the Bermuda Railway, which was abandoned in 1948.[40] The right of way is now the Bermuda Railway Trail.[41]
In 1930, after several failed attempts, a Stinson Detroiter seaplane flew to Bermuda from New York City: It was the first aeroplane ever to reach the islands. In 1936, Deutsche Luft Hansa began to experiment with seaplane flights from Berlin via the Azores with continuation flights to New York City.[42]
In 1937,
In 1948, a regularly scheduled commercial airline service began to operate, using land-based aeroplanes landing at Kindley Field (now L.F. Wade International Airport), helping tourism to reach a peak in the 1960s and 1970s. By the end of the 1970s, however, international business had supplanted tourism as the dominant sector of Bermuda's economy.
The Royal Naval Dockyard and its attendant military garrison remained important to Bermuda's economy until the mid-20th century. In addition to considerable building work, the armed forces needed to source food and other materials from local vendors. Beginning in
Universal adult suffrage and development of a two-party political system took place in the 1960s.[10] Universal suffrage was adopted as part of Bermuda's Constitution in 1967; voting had previously been dependent on a certain level of property ownership.
On 10 March 1973, the governor of Bermuda,
At the 2020 Summer Olympics, Bermuda became the smallest overseas territory to earn a gold medal, as Flora Duffy won Bermuda's first ever Olympic gold medal in the women's triathlon.[47]
Geography
Bermuda is a group of low-forming volcanoes in the Atlantic Ocean, in the west of the Sargasso Sea, roughly 578 nmi (1,070 km; 665 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras[48] on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, United States which is the nearest landmass.[1][49] Its next nearest neighbour is Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia Canada which is 1,236 km (768 mi) north of Bermuda. It is also located 1,759 km (1,093 mi) north-northeast of Havana, Cuba, 1,538 km (956 mi) north of the British Virgin Islands, and 1,537.17 km (955.15 mi) north of San Juan, Puerto Rico.
The territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 km2 (20.6 sq mi).[50] The largest island is Main Island (also called Bermuda). Eight larger and populated islands are connected by bridges.[50] The territory's tallest peak is Town Hill on Main Island at 79 m (259 ft) tall.[1][51] The territory's coastline is 103 km (64 mi).[1]
Bermuda gives its name to the Bermuda Triangle, a region of sea in which, according to legend, a number of aircraft and boats have disappeared under unexplained or mysterious circumstances.[52]
Main sights
Bermuda's pink sand beaches and clear,
Bermuda's most popular visitor attraction is the
Non-residents are prohibited from driving cars on the island.[56] Public transport and taxis are available or visitors can rent scooters for use as private transport.[50]
Geology
Bermuda consists of over 150
The limestones of Bermuda consist of
The older eolianite ridges (older Bermuda) are more rounded and subdued compared to the outer coastline (Younger Bermuda). Thus, post deposition morphology includes chemical erosion, with inshore water bodies demonstrating that much of Bermuda is partially drowned Pleistocene karst. The Walsingham Formation is a clear example, constituting the cave district around Castle Harbour. The Upper Town Hill Formation forms the core of the Main Island, and prominent hills such as Town Hill, Knapton Hill, and St. David's Lighthouse, while the highest hills, Gibbs Hill Lighthouse, are due to the Southampton Formation.[58]
Bermuda has two major aquifers, the Langton Aquifer located within the Southampton, Rocky Bay and Belmont Formations, and the Brighton Aquifer located within the Town Hill Formation. Four freshwater lenses occur in Bermuda, with the Central Lens being the largest on Main Island, containing an area of 7.2 km2 (1,800 acres) and a thickness greater than 10 m (33 ft).[58]
Climate
Bermuda has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification: Af), bordering very closely on a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). It is also an oceanic climate, common to many oceanic islands and to the western coasts of continents in the Northern Hemisphere (resulting in a more moderate climate on the western coast of Europe than on the eastern coast of North America), characterised by high relative humidity that moderates temperature, ensuring generally mild winters and summers.
Bermuda is warmed by the nearby Gulf Stream. The islands may experience modestly cooler temperatures in January, February, and March [average 18 °C (64 °F)].[59] There has never been snow, a frost or freeze on record in Bermuda.[60] The hardiness zone is 11b/12a. In other words, the coldest that the annual minimum temperature may be expected to be is around 50 °F (10 °C).) This is very high for such a latitude and is a half-zone higher than the Florida Keys.
Summertime heat index in Bermuda can be high, although mid-August temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F). The highest recorded temperature was 34 °C (93 °F) in August 1989.[61] The average annual temperature of the Atlantic Ocean around Bermuda is 22.8 °C (73.0 °F), from 18.6 °C (65.5 °F) in February to 28.2 °C (82.8 °F) in August.[62]
Bermuda is in the
With no rivers or freshwater lakes, the only source of fresh water is rainfall, which is collected on roofs and catchments (or drawn from underground lenses) and stored in tanks.[1] Each dwelling usually has at least one of these tanks forming part of its foundation. The law requires that each household collect rainwater that is piped down from the roof of each house. Average monthly rainfall is highest in October, at over 6 in (150 mm), and lowest in April and May.
Access to biocapacity in Bermuda is much lower than world average. In 2016, Bermuda had 0.14 global hectares[63] of biocapacity per person within its territory, far lower than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[64] In 2016 Bermuda used 7.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person — their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use much more biocapacity than Bermuda contains. As a result, Bermuda runs a biocapacity deficit.[63]
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1904 view across Hamilton Harbour from Fort Hamilton of cedar-cloaked hills in Paget Parish
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Residential suburb near the old St. George's Garrison, with "Town Cut Battery" or "Gate's Fort" on the shore of the Town Cut, and St. George's Town and its harbour in the background
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Officers of 3rd Battalion, The Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), at Battalion Training at Tucker's Town, Bermuda, 1905. Bermuda's climate means heavier temperate uniforms were by armed forces and police personnel and are worn for much of the year.
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Battalion Training at Tucker's Town Bermuda of the 3rd Battalion Royal Fusiliers, wearing lightweight khaki drills, intended as a warm climate uniform, as a summer uniform.
Climate data for Bermuda (L.F. Wade International Airport) (1991-2020 normals, extremes 1949-2023)[b] | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 25.4 (77.7) |
26.1 (79.0) |
26.1 (79.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
30.0 (86.0) |
32.2 (90.0) |
33.1 (91.6) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.2 (91.8) |
31.7 (89.0) |
28.9 (84.0) |
26.7 (80.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
Mean maximum °C (°F) | 23.4 (74.1) |
23.1 (73.6) |
23.5 (74.3) |
24.4 (75.9) |
26.5 (79.7) |
29.1 (84.4) |
30.7 (87.3) |
31.2 (88.2) |
30.6 (87.1) |
28.9 (84.0) |
26.3 (79.3) |
24.5 (76.1) |
31.3 (88.3) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 20.7 (69.3) |
20.4 (68.7) |
20.5 (68.9) |
22.1 (71.8) |
24.3 (75.7) |
27.2 (81.0) |
29.6 (85.3) |
30.1 (86.2) |
29.1 (84.4) |
26.7 (80.1) |
23.8 (74.8) |
21.8 (71.2) |
24.7 (76.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.3 (64.9) |
17.9 (64.2) |
18.1 (64.6) |
19.7 (67.5) |
22.0 (71.6) |
25.0 (77.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.7 (81.9) |
26.7 (80.1) |
24.4 (75.9) |
21.6 (70.9) |
19.6 (67.3) |
22.4 (72.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 15.9 (60.6) |
15.4 (59.7) |
15.6 (60.1) |
17.3 (63.1) |
19.8 (67.6) |
22.7 (72.9) |
24.9 (76.8) |
25.2 (77.4) |
24.4 (75.9) |
22.2 (72.0) |
19.3 (66.7) |
17.3 (63.1) |
20.0 (68.0) |
Mean minimum °C (°F) | 11.5 (52.7) |
11.6 (52.9) |
11.4 (52.5) |
14.0 (57.2) |
16.3 (61.3) |
19.4 (66.9) |
21.7 (71.1) |
22.5 (72.5) |
21.4 (70.5) |
19.0 (66.2) |
15.9 (60.6) |
13.6 (56.5) |
10.2 (50.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | 7.2 (45.0) |
6.3 (43.3) |
7.2 (45.0) |
8.9 (48.0) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.2 (59.4) |
16.1 (61.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
14.4 (58.0) |
12.4 (54.3) |
9.1 (48.4) |
6.3 (43.3) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 127.6 (5.02) |
123.6 (4.87) |
118.9 (4.68) |
86.8 (3.42) |
94.6 (3.72) |
110.2 (4.34) |
116.2 (4.57) |
165.2 (6.50) |
145.2 (5.72) |
149.1 (5.87) |
111.6 (4.39) |
104.8 (4.13) |
1,453.8 (57.23) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 13.8 | 12.6 | 12.2 | 8.9 | 7.8 | 9.9 | 10.7 | 13.2 | 11.6 | 12.1 | 11.8 | 11.7 | 136.3 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
73 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 79 | 81 | 80 | 79 | 77 | 74 | 72 | 72 | 76 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | 13.4 (56.1) |
13.3 (55.9) |
12.9 (55.2) |
15.2 (59.4) |
17.7 (63.9) |
21.1 (70.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
23.1 (73.6) |
22.2 (72.0) |
19.8 (67.6) |
16.6 (61.9) |
14.6 (58.3) |
17.7 (63.9) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 143.2 | 147.6 | 189.7 | 231.9 | 255.9 | 255.6 | 284.6 | 272.7 | 221.8 | 198.3 | 168.0 | 146.6 | 2,515.9 |
Source: Bermuda Weather Service (mean max and min 2006-2023, humidity 1995-2010, dew point 2002-2018, sun 1999-2019)[65][66][67][68][69] |
Flora and fauna
When discovered, Bermuda was uninhabited by humans and mostly dominated by forests of
The only
The
Demographics
Bermuda's 2016 Census put its population at 63,779 and, with an area of 53.2 km2 (20.5 sq mi), it has a calculated population density of 1,201 people/km2 (3,111/mi2).[2] As of July 2018, the population is estimated to be 71,176.[1]
The racial makeup of Bermuda was 52% Black, 31% White, 9% multiracial, 4% Asian, and 4% other races, these numbers being based on self-identification recorded by the 2016 census. The majority of those who answered "Black" may have any mixture of black, white or other ancestry. Native-born Bermudians made up 70% of the population, compared to 30% non-natives.[2]
The island experienced large-scale immigration over the 20th century, especially after World War II. About 64% of the population identified themselves with Bermudian ancestry in 2010, which was an increase from the 51% who did so in the 2000 census. Those identifying with British ancestry dropped by 1% to 11% (although those born in the United Kingdom remain the largest non-native group at 3,942 people). The number of people born in Canada declined by 13%. Those who reported West Indian ancestry were 13%. The number of people born in the West Indies actually increased by 538. A significant segment of the population is of Portuguese ancestry (25%), the result of immigration over the past 160 years,[77] of whom 79% have residency status. In June 2018, Premier Edward David Burt announced that 4 November 2019 "will be declared a public holiday to mark the 170th anniversary of the arrival of the first Portuguese immigrants in Bermuda" due to the significant impact that Portuguese immigration has had on the territory.[78] Those first immigrants arrived from Madeira aboard the vessel the Golden Rule on 4 November 1849.[79]
There are also several thousand expatriate workers, principally from the United Kingdom, Canada, the West Indies, South Africa, and the United States, who reside in Bermuda. They are primarily engaged in specialised professions such as accounting, finance, and insurance. Others are employed in various trades, such as hotels, restaurants, construction, and landscaping services. Despite the high cost of living, the high salaries offer expatriates several benefits by moving to Bermuda and working for a period of time.[80] Of the total workforce of 38,947 people in 2005, government employment figures stated that 11,223 (29%) were non-Bermudians.[81]
Languages
The predominant language in Bermuda is Bermudian English.[1]
Religion
Christianity is the largest religion on Bermuda.[1] Various Protestant denominations are dominant at 46.2% (including Anglican 15.8%; African Methodist Episcopal 8.6%; Seventh-day Adventist 6.7%; Pentecostal 3.5%; Methodist 2.7%; Presbyterian 2.0%; Church of God 1.6%; Baptist 1.2%; Salvation Army 1.1%; Brethren 1.0%; other Protestant 2.0%).[1] Roman Catholics form 14.5%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, and other Christians 9.1%.[1] The balance of the population are Muslim 1%, other 3.9%, none 17.8%, or unspecified 6.2% (2010 est.).[1]
The Anglican Church of Bermuda, an Anglican Communion diocese separate from the Church of England, operates the oldest non-Catholic parish in the New World, St. Peter's Church. Catholics are served by a single Latin diocese, the Diocese of Hamilton in Bermuda.
Politics
Bermuda is an
The
There are few accredited diplomats in Bermuda. The United States maintains the largest diplomatic mission in Bermuda, comprising both the United States Consulate and the
Nationality and citizenship
Historically, English (later British) colonials shared the same citizenship as those born within that part of the sovereign territory of the
When several colonies had been elevated before the
When the Dominions and an increasing number of colonies began choosing complete independence from the United Kingdom after the Second World War, the Commonwealth was transformed into a community of independent nations, or Commonwealth Realms, each recognising the British monarch as its own head of state (creating separate monarchies with the same person occupying all of the separate Thrones; the exception being republican India).[95][96][97][98]
'British Subject' was replaced by the
Many ethnic-Indians from former African colonies (notably Kenya) subsequently relocated to the United Kingdom, in response to which the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 was rapidly passed, stripping all British Subjects (including Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies) who were not born in the United Kingdom, and who did not have a Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom or some other qualification (such as existing residence status), of the rights to freely enter, reside and work in the United Kingdom.[104][105][106][107][108]
Although the 1968 Act was intended primarily to bar immigration of specific British passport holders from Commonwealth countries in Africa, it amended the wording of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 in such a way as to apply to all Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies who were not specifically excepted, including most colonials.
This was followed by the Immigration Act 1971, which effectively divided Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies into two types, although their citizenship remained the same: Patrials, who were those from (or with a specified qualifying connection to) the United Kingdom itself, who retained the rights of free entry, abode, and work in the United Kingdom; and those born in the colonies (or in foreign countries to British Colonial parents), from whom those rights were denied.[109][110]
The British Nationality Act 1981, which entered into force on 1 January 1983,[111] abolished British Subject status, and stripped colonials of their full British Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies, replacing it with British Dependent Territories Citizenship, which entailed no right of abode or to work anywhere. This left Bermudians and most other erstwhile British colonials as British nationals without the rights of British citizenship.[112][99]
The exceptions were the
The stripping of birthright citizenship from Bermudians by the British Government in 1968 and 1971, and the change of their citizenship in 1983, violated the rights granted them by
Alsoe wee doe, for us, our heires and successors, declare by theise presentes that all and everie the parsons being our subjects which shall dwell and inhabit within everie or anie of the saide severall Colonies and plantacions and everie of theire children which shall happen to be borne within the limitts and precincts of the said severall Colonies and plantacions shall have and enjoy all liberties, franchises and immunites within anie of our other dominions to all intents and purposes as if they had been abiding and borne within this our realme of Englande or anie other of our saide dominions.[117]
These rights were confirmed in the Royal Charter granted to the London Company's spin-off, the
And wee doe for vs our heires and successors declare by these Pnts, that all and euery persons being our subjects which shall goe and inhabite within the said Somer Ilandes and every of their children and posterity which shall happen to bee borne within the limits thereof shall haue and enjoy all libertyes franchesies and immunities of free denizens and natural subjectes within any of our dominions to all intents and purposes, as if they had beene abiding and borne within this our Kingdome of England or in any other of our Dominions[118]
Bermuda is not the only territory whose citizenship rights were laid down in a Royal Charter. In regards to St. Helena, Lord Beaumont of Whitley in the House of Lords debate on the British Overseas Territories Bill on 10 July 2001, stated:[119]
Citizenship was granted irrevocably by Charles I. It was taken away by Parliament because of growing opposition to immigration at the time.
Some Conservative Party backbenchers stated that it was the unpublished intention of the Conservative British Government to return to a single citizenship for the United Kingdom and all of the remaining territories once Hong Kong had been handed over to China. Whether this was so will never be known as by 1997 the Labour Party was in Government. The Labour Party had declared prior to the election that the colonies had been ill-treated by the British Nationality Act 1981, and it had made a pledge to return to a single citizenship for the United Kingdom and the remaining territories part of its election manifesto. Other matters took precedence, however, and this commitment was not acted upon during Labour's first term in Government. The House of Lords, in which many former colonial Governors sat (including former Governor of Bermuda Lord Waddington), lost patience and tabled and passed its own bill, then handed it down to the House of Commons to confirm in 2001. As a result, the British Dependent Territories were renamed the
At the same time, although Labour had promised a return to a single citizenship for the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies, and all remaining territories, British Dependent Territories Citizenship, renamed British Overseas Territories Citizenship, remained the default citizenship for the territories, other than the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar (for which British Citizenship is still the default citizenship). The bars to residence and work in the United Kingdom that had been raised against holders of British Dependent Territories Citizenship by The British Nationality Act 1981 were, however, removed, and British Citizenship was made attainable by simply obtaining a second British passport with the citizenship recorded as British Citizen (requiring a change to passport legislation as prior to 2002, it had been illegal to possess two British Passports).[123]
In March 2021, the government implemented a new visa policy towards foreigners, through which residency can be obtained by way of investing at least $2.5 million in "real estate, Bermuda government bonds, a contribution to the island's debt relief fund or the Bermuda Trust Fund, and charity", among other options. According to the Labour Minister, Jason Hayward, this step had to be taken to relieve some of the country's debt resulting from the Covid pandemic.[124]
Administrative divisions
Bermuda is divided into nine
Bermuda's nine parishes are:
Bermuda's two incorporated municipalities are:
- Hamilton (city)
- St George's (town)
Bermuda's two informal villages are:
Jones Village in Warwick, Cashew City (St. George's), Claytown (Hamilton), Middle Town (Pembroke), and
International relations
As a British Overseas Territory, Bermuda does not have a seat in the
Bermuda's proximity to the US had made it attractive as the site for summit conferences between British prime ministers and US presidents. The first summit was held in December 1953, at the insistence of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, to discuss relations with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Participants included Churchill, US president Dwight D. Eisenhower and French premier Joseph Laniel.[128]
In 1957 a second summit conference was held. The British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, arrived earlier than President Eisenhower, to demonstrate they were meeting on British territory, as tensions were still high regarding the previous year's conflict over the Suez Canal. Macmillan returned in 1961 for the third summit with President John F. Kennedy. The meeting was called to discuss Cold War tensions arising from construction of the Berlin Wall.[129]
The most recent summit conference in Bermuda between the two powers occurred in 1990, when British prime minister Margaret Thatcher met US president George H. W. Bush.[129]
Direct meetings between the president of the United States and the
Bermuda has also joined several other jurisdictions in efforts to protect the Sargasso Sea.[131]
In 2013 and 2017 Bermuda chaired the United Kingdom Overseas Territories Association.[132][133]
Asylum offer to four former Guantánamo detainees
On 11 June 2009, four
In September 2008, the men were cleared of all suspicion and Judge Ricardo Urbina in Washington ordered their release. Congressional opposition to their admittance to the United States was very strong[134] and the US failed to find a home for them until Bermuda and Palau agreed to accept the 22 men in June 2009.
The secret bilateral discussions that led to prisoner transfers between the US and the devolved Bermuda government sparked diplomatic ire from the United Kingdom, which was not consulted on the move despite Bermuda being a British territory. The British Foreign Office issued the following statement:
We've underlined to the Bermuda Government that they should have consulted with the United Kingdom as to whether this falls within their competence or is a security issue, for which the Bermuda Government do not have delegated responsibility. We have made clear to the Bermuda Government the need for a security assessment, which we are now helping them to carry out, and we will decide on further steps as appropriate.[138]
In August 2018, the four Uyghurs were granted limited citizenship in Bermuda. The men now have the same rights as Bermudians except the right to vote.[139]
British North America, British West Indies and the Caribbean Community
The British Government originally grouped Bermuda with North America (given its proximity, and Bermuda having been established as an extension of the
From 1783 through 1801, the British Empire, including British North America, was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 by the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office) and Secretary of State for War and Colonies (as the Secretary of State for War was renamed). From 1824, the British Empire was divided by the War and Colonial Office into four administrative departments, including North America, the West Indies, Mediterranean and Africa, and Eastern Colonies, of which North America included:[140]
- North America
- Upper Canada, Lower Canada
- New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island
- Bermuda, Newfoundland
The Colonial Office and War Office, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Secretary of State for War, were separated in 1854.[141][142] The War Office, from then until the 1867 confederation of the Dominion of Canada, split the military administration of the British colonial and foreign stations into nine districts:
- North America and North Atlantic;
- West Indies;
- Mediterranean;
- West Coast of Africa and South Atlantic;
- South Africa;
- Egypt and the Sudan;
- Indian Ocean;
- Australasia;
- China.
North America and North Atlantic included the following 'stations' (or garrisons):[143]
North America and North Atlantic
- New Westminster (British Columbia)
- Newfoundland
- Quebec
- Halifax
- Kingston, Canada West
- Bermuda
The Colonial Office, by 1862, oversaw eight Colonies in British North America,[144] including:
North American Colonies, 1862
- Canada
- Nova Scotia
- New Brunswick
- Prince Edward Island
- Newfoundland
- Bermuda
- Vancouver Island
- British Columbia
By 1867, administration of the
North American Department of the Colonial Office, 1867
- Canada
- Nova Scotia
- New Brunswick
- Prince Edward Island
- Newfoundland
- Bermuda
- Vancouver Island
- British Columbia
- Falkland Islands
Following the 1867
Of these, the "North American and Australasian Department" included:[147]
North American and Australasian Department, 1901
- Canada
- Newfoundland
- Bermuda
- Bahamas
- British Honduras
- New South Wales
- Victoria
- South Australia
- Queensland
- Western Australia
- Tasmania, New Zealand
- Fiji
- British New Guinea
- Western Pacific
- Cyprus
- Gibraltar
- Falkland Islands.
In 1907, the
Bermuda, with a land mass totalling less than 21 square miles and a population of 17,535, could hardly constitute an Imperial administrative region on its own. By 1908, the Colonial Office included two departments (one overseeing dominion and protectorate business, the other colonial): Dominions Department (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Newfoundland, Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Australian States, Fiji, Western Pacific, Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protectorate, Swaziland, Rhodesia); Crown Colonies Department. The Crown Colonies Department was made up of four territorial divisions: Easter Division; West Indian Division; East African and Mediterranean Division; and the West African Division.
Of these, the West Indian Division now included all of the remaining British colonies in the Western Hemisphere, from Bermuda to the Falkland Islands:
Jamaica, Turks Islands, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bahamas, Bermuda, Trinidad, Barbados, Windward Islands, Leeward Islands, Falkland Islands, and St. Helena.[148]
Following Canadian confederation in 1867, the British political, naval and military hierarchy in Bermuda became increasingly separated from that of the Canadian Government (the Royal Navy headquarters for the North America and West Indies Station had spent summers at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and winters at Bermuda, but settled at Bermuda year round with the Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax finally being transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1907, and the Bermuda Garrison had been placed under the military Commander-in-Chief America in New York during the American War of Independence, and had been part of the Nova Scotia Command thereafter, but became the separate Bermuda Command from the 1860s with the Major-General or Lieutenant-General appointed as Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda also filling the civil role of Governor of Bermuda), and Bermuda was increasingly perceived by the British Government as in, or at least grouped for convenience with, the British West Indies (although the established Church of England in Bermuda, which from 1825 to 1839 had been attached to the See of Nova Scotia) remained part of the Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1879, when the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed and a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop.[149][150] Newfoundland attained Dominion status in 1907, leaving the nearest other territories to Bermuda that were still within the British Realm (a term which replaced Dominion in 1952 as the dominions and many colonies moved towards full political independence) as the British colonies in the British West Indies.[151][152]
Other denominations also at one time included Bermuda with Nova Scotia or Canada. Following the separation of the Church of England from the
Bermuda became an associate member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in July 2003, despite not being in the Caribbean region.[155][156][157]
CARICOM is a
Among some scholars,[who?] "the Caribbean" can be a socio-historical category, commonly referring to a cultural zone characterised by the legacy of slavery (a characteristic Bermuda shared with the Caribbean and the US) and the plantation system (which did not exist in Bermuda). It embraces the islands and parts of the neighbouring continent, and may be extended to include the Caribbean Diaspora overseas.[158]
The PLP, which was the party in government when the decision was made to join CARICOM, has been dominated for decades by West Indians and their descendants. The prominent roles of West Indians among Bermuda's black politicians and labour activists predated party politics in Bermuda, as exemplified by
The decision to join CARICOM stirred up a huge amount of debate and speculation among the Bermudian community and politicians.
The UBP, which had been in government from 1968 to 1998, argued that joining CARICOM was detrimental to Bermuda's interests, in that:[170]
- Bermuda's trade with the West Indies is negligible, its primary economic partners being the US, Canada, and UK (it has no direct air or shipping links to Caribbean islands);
- CARICOM is moving towards a single economy;
- the Caribbean islands are generally competitors to Bermuda's already ailing tourism industry; and
- participation in CARICOM would involve considerable investment of money and the time of government officials that could more profitably be spent elsewhere.
Police
Law enforcement in Bermuda is provided chiefly by the Bermuda Police Service and is also supported with the Customs Department and Immigration Department. During certain times the Royal Bermuda Regiment can be called in to assist law enforcement personnel.
Military and defence
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2019) |
A former
For the first two centuries of settlement, the most potent armed force operating from Bermuda was its merchant shipping fleet, which turned to
After the American Revolutionary War, Bermuda was established as the Western Atlantic headquarters of the North America Station (later called the North America and West Indies Station, and later still the America and West Indies Station as it absorbed other stations) of the Royal Navy. Once the Royal Navy established a base and dockyard defended by regular soldiers, however, the militias were disbanded following the War of 1812. At the end of the 19th century, the colony raised volunteer units to form a reserve for the military garrison.
Due to its isolated location in the
In May 1940, the US requested base rights in Bermuda from the United Kingdom, but British Prime Minister
Construction began in 1941 of two airbases consisting of 5.8 km2 (2.2 sq mi) of land, largely reclaimed from the sea. For many years, Bermuda's bases were used by
The original
Canada, which had operated a war-time naval base, HMCS Somers Isles, on the old Royal Navy base at Convict Bay, St George's, also established a radio-listening post at Daniel's Head in the West End of the islands during this time.
In the 1950s, after the end of World War II, the Royal Naval dockyard and the military garrison were closed. A small Royal Navy supply base,
Bermudians served in the British armed forces during both World War I and World War II. After the latter, Major-General Glyn Charles Anglim Gilbert, Bermuda's highest-ranking soldier, was instrumental in developing the Bermuda Regiment. A number of other Bermudians and their descendants had preceded him into senior ranks, including Bahamian-born Admiral Lord Gambier, and Bermudian-born Royal Marines Brigadier Harvey. When promoted to brigadier at age 39, following his wounding at the Anzio landings, Harvey became the youngest-ever Royal Marine Brigadier. The Cenotaph in front of the Cabinet Building (in Hamilton) was erected in tribute to Bermuda's Great War dead (the tribute was later extended to Bermuda's Second World War dead) and is the site of the annual Remembrance Day commemoration.
Today, the only military unit remaining in Bermuda, other than naval and army cadet corps, is the Royal Bermuda Regiment, an amalgam of the voluntary units originally formed toward the end of the 19th century. Although the Regiment's predecessors were voluntary units, until 2018 the modern body was formed primarily by conscription: balloted males were required to serve for three years, two months part-time, once they turn 18. Conscription was abolished 1 July 2018.[172][173]
In early 2020 Bermuda formed the Bermuda Coast Guard. Its 24-hour on-duty service includes search and rescue, counter-narcotics operations, border control, and protection of Bermuda's maritime interests. The Bermuda Coast Guard will interact with the Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Service.[174]
Economy
Banking and other financial services now form the largest sector of the economy at about 85% of GDP, with tourism being the second largest industry at 5%.[1][22] Industrial and agriculture activities occur; however, these are on a very limited scale and Bermuda is heavily reliant on imports.[1] Living standards are high and as of 2019 Bermuda has the 6th-highest GDP per capita in the world.[1]
1890s to 1920s: economy severely affected by lily virus
Early
Currency
In 1970, the country switched its currency from the
Finance
Bermuda is an offshore financial centre, which results from its minimal standards of business regulation/laws and direct taxation on personal or corporate income. It has one of the highest consumption taxes in the world and taxes all imports in lieu of an income tax system. Bermuda's consumption tax is equivalent to local income tax to local residents and funds government and infrastructure expenditures. The local tax system depends upon import duties, payroll taxes and consumption taxes. Foreign private individuals cannot easily open bank accounts or subscribe to mobile phone or internet services.[178][failed verification]
Having no corporate income tax, Bermuda is a popular tax avoidance location. Google, for example, is known to have shifted over $10 billion in revenue to its Bermuda subsidiary utilising the Double Irish and Dutch Sandwich tax avoidance strategies, reducing its 2011 tax liability by $2 billion.[179] The Bermuda Black Hole is another tax avoidance method in which untaxed profits end up in Bermuda.
Large numbers of leading international insurance companies operate in Bermuda.
The Bermuda Stock Exchange (BSX) specialises in listing and trading of capital market instruments such as equities, debt issues, funds (including hedge fund structures) and depository receipt programmes. The BSX is a full member of the World Federation of Exchanges and is located in an OECD member nation. It also has Approved Stock Exchange status under Australia's Foreign Investment Fund (FIF) taxation rules and Designated Investment Exchange status by the UK's Financial Services Authority.[181][182]
Four banks operate in Bermuda,[183] having consolidated total assets of $24.3 billion (March 2014).[184]
Tourism
Tourism is Bermuda's second-largest industry, with the island attracting over half a million visitors annually, of whom more than 80% are from the United States.[1] Other significant sources of visitors are from Canada and the United Kingdom. However, the sector is vulnerable to external shocks, such as the 2008 recession.[1]
Housing
The affordability of housing became a prominent issue during Bermuda's business peak in 2005 but has softened with the decline of Bermuda's real estate prices. The World Factbook lists the average cost of a house in June 2003 as $976,000,[185] while real estate agencies have claimed that this figure had risen to between $1.6 million[186] and $1.845 million by 2007,[187] though such high figures have been disputed.[188]
Education
The Bermuda Education Act 1996 requires that only three categories of schools can operate in the Bermuda Education system:[189]
- An aided school has all or a part of its property vested in a body of trustees or board of governors and is partially maintained by public funding or, since 1965 and the desegregationof schools, has received a grant-in-aid out of public funds.
- A maintained school has the whole of its property belonging to the Government and is fully maintained by public funds.
- A private school, not maintained by public funds and which has not, since 1965 and the desegregation of schools, received any capital grant-in-aid out of public funds. The private school sector consists of six traditional private schools, two of which are religious schools, and the remaining four are secular with one of these being a single-gender school and another a Montessori school. Also, within the private sector there are a number of home schools, which must be registered with the government and receive minimal government regulation. The only boys' school opened its doors to girls in the 1990s, and in 1996, one of the aided schools became a private school.
Prior to 1950, the Bermuda school system was racially segregated.[190] When the desegregation of schools was enacted in 1965, two of the formerly maintained "white" schools and both single-sex schools opted to become private schools. The rest became part of the public school system and were either aided or maintained.
There are 38 schools in the Bermuda Public School System, including 10 preschools, 18 primary schools, 5 middle schools, 2 senior schools (The Berkeley Institute and Cedarbridge Academy), 1 school for students with physical and cognitive challenges, and 1 for students with behavioural problems.[191] There is one aided primary school, two aided middle schools, and one aided senior school. Since 2010, Portuguese has been taught as an optional foreign language in the Bermudian school system.[192][193]
For higher education, the
In May 2009, the Bermudian Government's application was approved to become a contributory member of the University of the West Indies (UWI). Bermuda's membership enabled Bermudian students to enter the university at an agreed-upon subsidised rate by 2010. UWI also agreed that its Open Campus (online degree courses) would become open to Bermudian students in the future, with Bermuda becoming the 13th country to have access to the Open Campus.[196] In 2010, it was announced that Bermuda would be an "associate contributing country" due to local Bermudian laws.[197]
Culture
sloop and a 19th-century Bermudian working boat in BermudaBermuda's culture is a mixture of the various sources of its population: Native American, Spanish-Caribbean, English, Irish, and Scots cultures were evident in the 17th century, and became part of the dominant British culture. English is the primary and official language. Due to 160 years of immigration from Portuguese Atlantic islands (primarily the
The first notable, and historically important, book credited to a Bermudian was The History of Mary Prince, a slave narrative by Mary Prince. The book was published in 1831 at the height of Great Britain's abolitionist movement.[198] Ernest Graham Ingham, an expatriate author, published his books at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The novelist Brian Burland (1931– 2010) achieved a degree of success and acclaim internationally. More recently, Angela Barry has won critical recognition for her published fiction.[199][200]
Arts
West Indian musicians introduced
Noted Bermudian musicians include operatic tenor Gary Burgess; jazz pianist Lance Hayward; singer-songwriter and poet, Heather Nova, and her brother Mishka, reggae musician; classical musician and conductor Kenneth Amis; and more recently, dancehall artist Collie Buddz.
The dances of the Gombey dancers, seen at many events, are strongly influenced by African, Caribbean and British cultural traditions.
Alfred Birdsey was one of the more famous and talented watercolourists, known for his impressionistic landscapes of Hamilton, St George's, and the surrounding sailboats, homes, and bays of Bermuda. Hand-carved cedar sculptures are another speciality. In 2010, his sculpture We Arrive was unveiled in Barr's Bay Park, overlooking Hamilton Harbour, to commemorate the freeing of slaves in 1835 from the American brig Enterprise.[201]
Local resident Tom Butterfield founded the Masterworks Museum of Bermuda Art in 1986, initially featuring works about Bermuda by artists from other countries. He began with pieces by American artists, such as Winslow Homer, Charles Demuth, and Georgia O'Keeffe, who had lived and worked on Bermuda. In 2008, the museum opened its new building, constructed within the Botanical Gardens.[202]
Bermuda hosts an annual international film festival, which shows many independent films. One of the founders is film producer and director
Sport
Many sports popular today were formalised by British public schools and universities in the 19th century. These schools produced the civil servants and military and naval officers required to build and maintain the British Empire, and team sports were considered a vital tool for training their students to think and act as part of a team. Former public schoolboys continued to pursue these activities, and founded organisations such as the Football Association (FA).
Bermuda's role as the primary Royal Navy base in the Western Hemisphere ensured that the naval and military officers quickly introduced the newly formalised sports to Bermuda, including
The Government announced in 2006 that it would provide substantial financial support to Bermuda's cricket and
At the 2004 Summer Olympics, Bermuda competed in sailing, athletics, swimming, diving, triathlon and equestrian events. In those Olympics, Bermuda's Katura Horton-Perinchief made history by becoming the first black female diver to compete in the Olympic Games. Bermuda has had two Olympic medallists, Clarence Hill - who won a bronze medal in boxing - and Flora Duffy, who won a gold medal in triathlon. It is tradition for Bermuda to march in the Opening Ceremony in Bermuda shorts, regardless of the summer or winter Olympic celebration. Bermuda also competes in the biennial Island Games, which it hosted in 2013.[207]
In 1998, Bermuda established its own Basketball Association.[208]
Healthcare
The Bermuda Hospitals Board operates the King Edward VII Memorial Hospital, located in Paget Parish, and the Mid-Atlantic Wellness Institute, located in Devonshire Parish.[209] Boston's Lahey Medical Center has an established visiting specialists program on the island which provides Bermudians and expats with access to specialists regularly on the island.[210] There were about 6,000 hospital admissions, 30,000 emergency department attendances and 6,300 outpatient procedures in 2017.[211]
Unlike the other territories that still remain under British rule, Bermuda does not have national healthcare. Employers must provide a healthcare plan and pay for up to 50% of the cost for each employee.[212] Healthcare is a mandatory requirement and is expensive, even with the help provided by employers.[213] There are only a few approved healthcare providers that offer insurance to Bermudians.[212] As of 2016[update], these were the Bermudian government's Health Insurance Department, three other approved licensed health insurance companies, and three approved health insurance schemes (provided by the Bermudian government for its employees and by two banks).[214]
There are no paramedics on the island. The Bermuda Hospitals Board said in 2018 that they were not vital in Bermuda because of its small size.[215] Nurse practitioners on the island, of which there are not many, can be granted authority to write prescriptions "under the authority of a medical practitioner".[216]
COVID-19 pandemic
The Minister for Health during the COVID-19 pandemic was Kim Wilson, who led the territory's approach with "an abundance of caution".[217][218]
See also
- Notable cultural people of Bermuda
- Economy of Bermuda
- Notable historical people of Bermuda
- Index of Bermuda-related articles
- Notable sporting people of Bermuda
- Outline of Bermuda
- Places of interest in Bermuda
- Notable political people of Bermuda
- Telecommunications in Bermuda
Explanatory notes
- ^ Standard time in Bermuda is four hours behind Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).[4] UTC is not permitted to drift more than 0.9 seconds from GMT.
- ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 2006 to 2023.
References
Citations
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- ISBN 0-921992-23-8.
Today, the term 'Coloured' as a racial distinction referring to the Black population is no longer used, but in the period covered by this index it was the usual term and has been retained......We suspect that the clergy generally made a decision whether they would describe a person as 'White', and the 'Coloured' designation was used for everyone not described as 'White'. Users of this index should not confine themselves to 'White' or 'Coloured' registers (where they are separated) but should look at both. They should also not take too seriously the indication 'Col.' or 'Wh.' that appears often under Comments; these were occasionally written into the margins of the register by the clergyman or parish clerk.
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the non-white population....we analyzed genetic variation among members of this community....Our results reveal that the majority of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome haplotypes are of African and West Eurasian origin. However, unlike other English-speaking New World colonies, most African mtDNA haplotypes appear to derive from central and southeast Africa, reflecting the extent of maritime activities in the region........RESULTS: mtDNA diversity...The majority of mtDNA lineages observed in Bermudians (68%) originated in Africa....West Eurasian haplogroups comprised 31% of the Bermudian mtDNA haplotypes..... Y-chromosome diversity...one-third of the Bermudian male participants, had three NRY haplogroups of African ancestry...West Eurasian haplogroups accounted for the majority of the male participants and the vast majority of their Y-chromosomes....More than two-thirds of the mtDNAs (68%) are of African origin, and approximately one-third of them (31%) are of European origin. By contrast, Native American lineages constitute less than 1% of Bermudian mtDNAs, somewhat less was expected based on oral histories and archival data....The NRY haplogroup data likewise reveal clear contributions from the same two major source areas. However, the trend is reversed, with European lineages accounting for 66% of St. David's Islander Y-chromosomes and African lineages accounting for 32% of them. Native American haplogroups comprised only 2% of Bermudian Y-chromosomes, less than anticipated based on oral history and archival data.
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General and cited references
- Duffy, Peter (2014). Double Agent. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4516-6795-0.
- McGovern, Terrance; Harris, Edward (2018). Defenses of Bermuda 1612–1995 (Fortress 112). New York: Osprey Publishing c/o Bloomsbury Publishing.
- Ronnie, Art (1995). Counterfeit Hero: Fritz Duquesne, Adventurer and Spy. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. OCLC 605599179.
- "Bermuda". The New American Desk Encyclopedia (Third ed.). New York, NY: Signet. 1993. ISBN 0-451-17566-2.
Further reading
- Anonymous, but probably written by John Smith (1580–1631): The Historye of the Bermudaes or Summer Islands. University of Cambridge Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1108011570.
- Boultbee, Paul G., and David F. Raine. Bermuda. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1998.
- Connell, John. (1994). "Britain's Caribbean colonies: The End of the Era of Decolonisation?" (subscription required) The Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 32(1), 87–106. .
- Glover, Lorri; Daniel Blake Smith (2008), The Shipwreck That Saved Jamestown: The Sea Venture Castaways and the Fate of America, New York: Henry Holt and Co., OCLC 177818614
External links
- Official website of the Government of Bermuda
- Bermuda Tourism
- Bermuda Guide
- Bermuda Parliament
- Bermuda Chamber of commerce
- Bermuda's British Army forts from 1609 (archived 26 September 2006)
- Wikimedia Atlas of Bermuda