Bernhard von Bülow
Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst Himself | |
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Preceded by | Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein |
Succeeded by | Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg |
Personal details | |
Born | Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin von Bülow 3 May 1849 University of Leipzig University of Greifswald |
Signature | |
Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince of Bülow (
Born into a prominent family of Danish-German aristocrats, Bülow entered the German foreign service after his father,
As chancellor, Bülow promoted cautious and conservative domestic policies. In foreign affairs, he pursued an ambitious and expansionist policy. His open challenge to France's growing control over Morocco sparked the First Moroccan Crisis, which aggravated the French and the British and helped strengthen the Entente Cordiale. In 1908, Wilhelm's indiscreet remarks were published during the Daily Telegraph Affair, causing significant damage to German foreign relations and the Kaiser's prestige. Bülow was blamed for failing to prevent the blunder and, having lost the support of both the Kaiser and the Reichstag, he resigned in 1909 and was succeeded by Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg.
Bülow moved to Rome after his resignation. He came out of retirement in late 1914 to serve as interim ambassador to Italy, but was unable to bring King
Early life
He was born at Klein-Flottbeck, Holstein (now part of Altona, Hamburg). His father, Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, was a Danish and German statesman and member of an old House of Bülow, while his mother was a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker (1821-1894). His brother, Major-General Karl Ulrich von Bülow, was a cavalry commander during World War I. Bülow attributed his grasp of English and French to having learnt it from governesses as a young child. His father spoke French, and his mother spoke English, as was common in Hamburg society.[2]
In 1856, his father was sent to the Federal Diet in Frankfurt to represent Holstein and Lauenburg, when
He volunteered for military service during the Franco-Prussian War and became a lance-corporal in the King's Hussar Regiment. In December 1870, the squadron was in action near Amiens, and he later described charging and killing French riflemen with his sabre. He was promoted to lieutenant and was invited to remain in the army after the war but declined. He completed his law degree at the University of Greifswald in 1872. Afterwards, he entered first the Prussian Civil Service and then the diplomatic service.[3] His religion was
Early career
In 1873 his father became State Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the German government, serving under Bismarck. Bülow entered the diplomatic corps. His first short assignments were to Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna and then Athens.[5] In 1876, he was appointed attaché to the German embassy in Paris, attended the Congress of Berlin as a secretary and became second secretary to the embassy in 1880.[6]
In 1884, he had hoped to be posted to London but instead became first secretary at the embassy in
On 9 January 1886, still in St. Petersburg, he married
State Secretary for Foreign Affairs
On 21 June 1897 Bülow received a telegram instructing him to go to Kiel to speak to Wilhelm. On the way, he stopped at Frankfurt while changing trains and spoke to Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg. Eulenburg explained that Wilhelm wanted a new State Secretary for Foreign Affairs and urged Bülow to take the post, which his father had once held. Eulenburg also passed on advice about how best to manage Wilhelm, who lived on praise and could not stand to be contradicted. In Berlin, Bülow first spoke to Friedrich von Holstein, who was head of the political department of the German Foreign Office. Holstein advised him that although he would have preferred the present Secretary, Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, to stay in his post, Wilhelm was determined to replace him and that he would prefer the successor to be Bülow. Perhaps Bülow might be able to find him an ambassador's post in due course. Chancellor Hohenlohe, desperate to retire because of old age, urged Bülow to take the position with an eye to succeeding him as chancellor. Bülow urged Hohenlohe to continue in office for as long as he could.[11]
On 26 June, Bülow met with the Kaiser, who advised that it would be one of the new secretary's main tasks to set about building a world-class fleet capable of taking on the British without precipitating a war. Bülow asked for time to consider the offer, and on 3 August, he accepted. The two men formed a good working relationship. Rather than oppose Wilhelm, which some of his predecessors had done, Bülow agreed with him on all matters by sometimes privately relying on Wilhelm's bad memory and frequent changes of opinion to take the action that he thought best and ignore Wilhelm had instructed. The post of State Secretary was subordinate to that of the Chancellor and under Bismarck's chancellorship, it had been only a functionary. Under Bülow, that was largely reversed, Hohenlohe being content to let Bülow manage foreign affairs with his principal adviser, Holstein. Wilhelm would call on Bülow every morning to discuss state affairs but would rarely see the chancellor.[12]
Imperial State Secretary
Bülow also held a seat in the Prussian government. Although Wilhelm was emperor of all Germany, he was also king of Prussia. As Foreign Secretary, Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor was identified. He was welcomed by the Foreign Office because he was the first professional diplomat to be placed in charge since Bismarck's resignation in 1890.[citation needed] Bülow had been wary of accepting the post if Holstein remained as Imperial First Councillor, as Holstein had in practice held great authority in recent years. Holstein was regarded as indispensable because of his long experience in office, rank, cunning and phenomenal memory. Eulenburg advised Bülow to stake out a firm but working relationship immediately on his arrival, and both succeeded in working together.[13] In 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the negotiations by which Germany acquired the Caroline Islands, he was raised to the rank of Count.[citation needed]
In October 1900, Bülow was summoned to Wilhelm's hunting retreat at Hubertsstock, where Wilhelm asked Bülow to become Chancellor of the German Empire and Prime Minister of Prussia. Bülow queried whether he was the best man for the job. Wilhelm admitted he would have preferred Eulenburg on a personal level but was not sure he was sufficiently able. On 16 October, Bülow was summoned again to Homburg, where the Kaiser met his train in person. Wilhelm explained that Hohenlohe had announced he could no longer be and so Bülow accepted the job. A replacement State Secretary was necessary, which was first offered to Holstein, who turned it down since he preferred not to take a position that required appearing before the Reichstag. The post was given to Baron Oswald von Richthofen, who had already been serving as undersecretary to Bülow. It was made clear that the State Secretary's post would now revert to the subordinate role it had played in Bismarck's time, with Holstein remaining the more important adviser on foreign affairs.[14]
Chancellor
Cabinet (1900-1909) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Office | Incumbent | In office | Party |
Chancellor | Bernhard von Bülow | 17 October 1900 – 14 July 1909 | None |
Vice-Chancellor of Germany Secretary for the Interior |
Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner | 1 July 1897 – 24 June 1907 | None |
Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg | 24 June 1907 – 7 July 1909 | None | |
Secretary for the Foreign Affairs | Oswald von Richthofen | 17 October 1900 – 17 January 1906 | None |
Heinrich von Tschirschky | 17 January 1906 – 7 October 1907 | None | |
Wilhelm von Schoen | 7 October 1907 – 28 June 1910 | None | |
Secretary for the Justice | Rudolf Arnold Nieberding | 10 July 1893 – 25 October 1909 | None |
Secretary for the Navy | Alfred von Tirpitz | 18 June 1897 – 15 March 1916 | None |
Secretary for the Post | Victor von Podbielski | 1 July 1897 – 6 May 1901 | None |
Reinhold Kraetke | 6 May 1901 – 5 August 1917 | None | |
Secretary for the Treasury | Max von Thielmann | 1 July 1897 – 23 August 1903 | None |
Hermann von Stengel | 23 August 1903 – 20 February 1908 | None | |
Reinhold von Sydow | 20 February 1908 – 14 July 1909 | None |
Bülow's mornings were reserved for Wilhelm, who would visit the chancellery every morning when in Berlin. His determination to remain on Wilhelm's good side was remarkable, even for those accustomed to his irascible manner. Wilhelm's household controller noted, "Whenever, by oversight, he expresses an opinion in disagreement with the emperor, he remains silent for a few moments and then says the exact contrary, with the preface, 'as Your Majesty so wisely remarked'". He gave up tobacco, beer, coffee and liqueurs and took 35 minutes of exercise every morning and would ride in good weather through the Tiergarten. He would, on Sundays, take long walks in the woods. In 1905, at 56, he led his old Hussars regiment at the gallop in an imperial parade and was rewarded by an appointment to the rank of major general. Wilhelm remarked to Eulenburg in 1901, "Since I have Bülow I can sleep peacefully".[15] His first conspicuous act as chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of German imperialism in China. Bülow often spent his time defending German foreign policy there, to say nothing of covering for the Kaiser's many undiplomatic gaffes. In a speech on November 1906, Bülow introduced the concept of "encirclement" to the Reichstag that triggered the Teutonic press to blame Der Krieg in der Gegenwart[clarification needed].[16] To Germany, the Triple Entente was a disaster, but he put a brave face on it.
Domestic policy and politics
Various reforms were also introduced during his reign, including an extension of the period in which workers could claim accident insurance (1900), the making of industrial arbitration courts compulsory for towns with a population of more than 20,000 (1901) and an extension of health insurance and further controls on child labour (1903). A polling booth law was introduced that improved the secret ballot in 1904. Two years later, payment for Reichstag deputies was introduced.[17][18]
In preparation for the 1907 election, Bülow created the "Bülow Bloc" of parties that were fervently antisocialist and anticlerical, devoutly patriotic, enthusiastically imperialist, and loyal to the Kaiser and the Fatherland. What Bebel labeled the "Hottentot election" was a disaster for the Social Democrats, who lost almost half their seats. However, Bülow was unable to turn the election coalition into a stable bloc in parliament[19]
Economic policy
Under pressure from the Junker-dominated Agrarian League, Bülow passed a tariff in 1902 that increased the duties on agriculture.[20][21] As a result, the German grain production became one of the most protected in the world.[22] Bülow's government also negotiated a series of commercial treaties with other European countries that came into force in March 1906.[23]
Foreign policy
Bülow served as foreign minister, 1897-1909. To gain a stronger voice in world affairs he encouraged Admiral Tirpitz's naval expansion policy. Expecting Britain to be defeated by Russia he planned to pick up some colonies of the British Empire. He miscalculated, and alienated Britain even more, as it moved closer to an alliances with France and Russia.[24] Bülow was motivated by domestic political concerns in his support of Tirpitz naval policy. In 1898 he said that such a policy would "mobilize the best patriotic forces" and "appeal to the highest national emotions" which would in turn "keep the non-Socialist workers away from Social Democracy" and pull the worker away from "the ensnarements of the socialists and accustom him to the monarchical order".[25]
Britain still held the balance of power in Europe. France and Britain had been colonial rivals and had a long mutual opposition, but King Edward VII was determined to boost British popularity in France by a personal tour. Serious negotiations for the Entente Cordiale began between the French ambassador to London, Paul Cambon, and the British Foreign Secretary, Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne. As part of settling differences, France agreed not to dispute British control of Egypt if Britain agreed to France's claims to Morocco.[26]
On 24 March 1904, France formally informed the German ambassador of the new Anglo-French Convention.
Although not swayed by bellicose generals, he followed a central planning agenda. If Prussia was euphoric, Bülow remained ambitious for imperial grandiosity and world power. Commercial growth in iron, steel, mining, railways and ironclads, and a new navy was driven by huge outputs and highly-competitive contractors.[28] His chauvinism was extensive, a defensive embrasure against British alliance-building on which Germany would reject negotiations. He had promised to reply directly to British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain but thought better of it: "it is the English who must make advances to us". That unintentionally entrenched the Entente.[29]
Bülow assured the British ambassador that he was pleased to see Britain and France settling their differences. He informed the Reichstag that Germany had no objections to the deal and no concerns about German interests in Morocco.[30] Holstein had a different view: intervention in Moroccan affairs was governed by the Treaty of Madrid. Holstein argued that Germany had been sidelined by not being included in the negotiations and that Morocco was a country that showed promise for German influence and trade, which must eventually suffer if it came under French control. Previously he had dismissed any possibility of agreement between France and Britain.[31] France now offered military assistance to Morocco to improve order in the country.[32] Bülow responded by supporting the position of an independent Morocco, encouraging the United States to become involved and threatened war if France intervened. He was now convinced that the new friendliness between France and Britain was a threat to Germany, particularly if the accord deepened, but France was ill-prepared for war. Despite the possible risks of assassination, Bülow persuaded Wilhelm to make a visit to Tangier in 1905, where he made a speech supporting Morocco's independence, but his presence there simultaneously demonstrated Germany's determination to maintain its own influence.[33]
Algeciras Conference
A friendly German naval presence in Morocco and a military base nearby could threaten the British or the important trade routes through the Mediterranean. The British continued to support beleaguered French Foreign Minister
The conference went badly for Germany, with a vote against German proposals that was 10–3. Holstein wished to threaten war against France, but Bülow ordered Holstein to take no further part in the conference. No satisfactory outcome for Germany was in sight by April, which left the only course of action to wind it down as best he could. The result was received badly in Germany, with objections raised in the press. On 5 April 1906, Bülow was obliged to appear before the Reichstag to defend the outcome, and during a heated exchange, he collapsed and was carried from the hall. At first, it was thought he had suffered a fatal stroke.
Scandal
In 1907, during the
Daily Telegraph Affair
In November 1907, Wilhelm made a long-planned state visit to Britain. He had attempted to cancel the visit because of the recent scandals, but it went ahead and was so successful that he decided to remain in Britain for a holiday. He rented a house for the purpose from Colonel
Since Schoen was away, it instead went to the undersecretary, Stemrich. He read it but passed it without comment to Reinhold Klehmet, who interpreted his instructions as meaning to correct any errors of fact but not otherwise to comment. The manuscript was returned to Bülow, still unread, to Wilhelm, who saw no reason not to publish. It duly appeared in print and caused a storm. In the interview, Wilhelm expressed many controversial and offensive opinions:
- The English were mad as March hares.
- He could not understand why they repeatedly rejected his offers of friendship.
- Most Germans disliked the English and so his own friendly attitude put him in a "distinct minority".
- He had intervened against France and Russia on Britain's side during the Second Boer War.
- He had provided the campaign plan that was used by the British during that war.
- One day, they might come to be glad Germany was building up its fleet because of the rise of Japan.[38]
Wilhelm thus managed to offend Japanese, French, Russian and especially British sensibilities. Even Germans were outraged, as he claimed to have helped the British with their war against the Boers, whom most Germans had supported.[39]
Bülow accused the Foreign Office of failing to comment properly on the article. The office responded that it was his role to decide on publication in such a situation. Although Bülow denied having read the article, how he could have failed to do so remained unclear because of Wilhelm's continuous record of public gaffes. Questions arose as to Wilhelm's competence to rule and the role he should be permitted under the constitution. The matter was to be debated in the Reichstag, where Bülow would have to defend his own position and that of Wilhelm. Bülow wrote to Wilhelm and successfully offered to resign unless Wilhelm could give him full support in the matter. Bülow arranged the publication of a defence of the events in Norddeutsch Allgemeine Zeitung, which glossed over Wilhelm's remarks and concentrated on the failings of the Foreign Office in not examining the article properly. It explained that Bülow had offered to take full responsibility for the office's failings, but Wilhelm had refused to accept his resignation.[40]
Bülow succeeded in turning away criticism from himself in the Reichstag and finished his speech to cheering from the assembly. Holstein observed that the nature of the comments meant that he could almost certainly not have defended Wilhelm for making them and that Bülow could not have done otherwise: disputing the factual accuracy of much of what Wilhelm had said and leaving blame for events squarely with him. His explanation was that the comments had been made with the best of intentions and would certainly not be repeated. He declared his conviction that the disastrous effects of the interview would induce Wilhelm to observe strict reserve, even in private conversations, or neither he nor any successor could assume responsibility.[41]
Wilhelm was due to be away from Germany during the Reichstag debate, on a trip to Austria, and received much criticism for not staying at home. Wilhelm queried whether he ought to cancel the trip, but Bülow advised him to continue with it. Holstein asked Bülow about Wilhelm's absence; Bülow denied advising Wilhelm to go. Matters were not improved when during the visit, Count
Wilhelm withdrew from public appearances for six weeks, which was generally seen as an act of penitence rather than the consequence of his depression. Public opinion began to reflect on whether the Chancellor had failed to advise him properly and then failed to defend Wilhelm's actions in the Reichstag. Wilhelm's own view of the affair began to change to blaming Bülow for failing to warn him of the difficulties that the article would cause. He determined that Bülow would have to be replaced. In June 1909, difficulties arose in obtaining additional finance for ongoing ship construction. Wilhelm warned Bülow that if he failed to carry a majority for imposing inheritance taxes, Bülow would have to resign. He was defeated by eight votes. On board the royal yacht, Hohenzollern, on 26 June, Bülow offered his resignation, exactly twelve years after accepting the office.
On 14 July, the resignation was announced, and Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg became the new Chancellor. Wilhelm dined with the Bülows and expressed his regret that the prince was determined to resign. He observed that he had been informed that some of those who voted against the inheritance tax had done so out of animosity against Bülow and his handling of the Telegraph affair, rather out of opposition to the tax. For his services to the state, Bülow was awarded the Order of the Black Eagle set in diamonds.[43]
Later life
After his resignation in 1909, Bülow lived principally at the villa in Rome, which he had purchased for his retirement. Part of the summer was usually spent by him at Klein Flottbek, near Hamburg, or on the island of Norderney. A large fortune left him by a cousin, a Hamburg merchant, enabled him to live in elegant leisure and to make his house in Rome a centre of literary and political society.
He employed his leisure in writing for the centenary celebrations of the
Wartime diplomat
In 1914–1915, Bülow was the ambassador to Italy but failed to bring King
Austria-Hungary manifested great reluctance to enter upon the question of compensations, but Germany was more alert to its own concerns. Bülow was, therefore, entrusted with the temporary charge of the German embassy in Rome since the actual ambassador, Flotow, went on sick leave (19 December 1914). Bülow at once plunged into active negotiations and was sympathetic with Italian demands for compensation. He had, however, to fight the intransigence of Hungarian Prime Minister
In early April 1915, Italy's secret negotiations demanded the Trentino, Trieste and the Curzolane Islands, off the coast of Dalmatia. Austria-Hungary recognised Italian sovereignty over Valona. However, negotiations dragged on until the middle of May, when Bülow made a grave but characteristic tactical mistake. He induced the former Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti to come to Rome from Turin in the hope of preventing a rupture and bringing about the acceptance of the Austro-Hungarian terms.[44]
Prime Minister
Considered for chancellorship
He lived in Berlin, but after the peace he again resided in Rome for part of every year and spent the rest of the year in Germany. His name was mentioned in a ministerial crisis of 1921, as a possible chancellor.[44] Although many of the leading figures in the Reichstag, including Matthias Erzberger, hoped that Bülow would succeed Bethmann Hollweg, who resigned in 1917, he was entirely unacceptable to the vast majority of both the German people and the Reichstag.[44]
He died on 28 October 1929 in Rome.
Personality
Bülow spoke several languages and was a charming conversationalist. He was comfortably at home in high society and could entertain and impress even his opponents. He was thought by some colleagues to be untrustworthy:
Honours
- Granted the noble title of Prince (Fürst) in 1905.
- Honorary member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
- Honorary doctorates from the Universities of Königsberg and Münster
- Canon of the Brandenburg Cathedral chapter
- Bülowplatz in Berlin-Mittenamed in his honour between 1910 and 1933 (now Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz)
German orders and decorations[47]
- Prussia:
- Knight of Honour of the
- Knight of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class with Bow, 18 January 1886;[48] 1st Class with Oak Leaves, 6 February 1898[49]
- Knight of the Royal Crown Order, 1st Class
- Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, December 1902[50]
- Landwehr Service Medal, 1st Class
- Knight of the Black Eagle, with Collar and in Brilliants, July 1909
- Anhalt: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear
- Bavaria:[51]
- Grand Cross of Merit of the Bavarian Crown, 1897
- Knight of St. Hubert, 1900
- Baden:[52]
- Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, with Oak Leaves, 1898
- Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1900
- Brunswick: Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion, 1902[53]
- Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order
- Hesse and by Rhine:[54]
- Grand Cross of the Merit Order of Philip the Magnanimous, 23 March 1900
- Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 21 December 1900
- Lippe: Cross of Honour of the House Order of Lippe, 1st Class
- Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, 18 February 1878;[55] with Golden Crown and Collar
- Mecklenburg:
- Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Golden Crown, 17 October 1864[56]
- Grand Cross of the Griffon, with Swords (Schwerin)
- Cross for Distinction in War (Strelitz)
- Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 1895[57]
- Saxony:
- Grand Cross of the Albert Order, with Golden Star, 1890;[58] with Silver Crown
- Knight of the Rue Crown, 1900[58]
- Schaumburg-Lippe: Cross of Honour of the House Order of Schaumburg-Lippe, 1st Class
- Württemberg:
- Grand Cross of the Friedrich Order, with Crown, 1899[59]
- Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1900[59]
Foreign orders and decorations[47]
- Austria-Hungary:[60]
- Knight of the Iron Crown, 3rd Class, 1878
- Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold, 1897
- Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1900; in Brilliants, 1908
- Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
- Grand Cross of St. Alexander, in Brilliants
- Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 19 November 1906[61]
- Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Star of Ethiopia
- France:
- Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer
- Italy:
- Japan: Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun, with Paulownia Flowers
- Grand Cross of St. Charles
- Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
- Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion
- Norway: Grand Cross of St. Olav, 15 December 1906[64]
- Ottoman Empire:
- Order of Distinction
- Gold and Silver Imtiyaz Medals
- Order of Glory
- Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class in Brilliants
- Order of the Medjidie, 1st Class in Brilliants
- Persia:
- Order of the Aqdas, 2nd Class
- Order of the Lion and the Sun, 2nd Class
- Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, with Collar
- Qing dynasty: Order of the Double Dragon, Class I Grade III
- Romania:
- Russia: Knight of St. Andrew, in Brilliants, September 1901
- Serbia: Grand Cross of the White Eagle
- Spain:
- Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, 1883[65]
- Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 3 July 1899[66]
- Knight of the Golden Fleece, 23 November 1905[67]
- Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 6 June 1908[68]
- United Kingdom: Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 November 1899[69]
- Military appointments
- À la suite of the Prussian Army[47]
Notes
- ^ Engl. translation, M. Lavenz, 1914; English translation 1916)
References
- ^ Duden – Bülow
- ^ Bülow Volume IV, p. 20
- ^ a b Massie p. 140
- ^ Biographie, Deutsche. "Bülow, Bernhard Fürst von - Deutsche Biographie". Deutsche-Biographie.de. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
- ^ Massie pp. 140-41
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bülow, Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince von". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 793. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ Massie p. 141
- ^ Hostages of Modernization, ed. Strauss, 1993, p. 35
- ^ Massie p. 142
- ^ Massie pp. 142-43
- ^ Massie pp. 143–44
- ^ Massie pp. 144-146
- ^ Massie p. 146
- ^ Massie pp. 147-48
- ^ Massie pp. 148-49
- ^ 'The War in the Present', January 1909 by Schlieffen; E.M.Carroll, Germany and the Great Powers, p. 577-8; Ham, p. 95
- ISBN 9780521530576.
- ^ Sally Waller. AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871-1925 (2014)
- ^ Martin Kitchen, A History of Modern Germany, 1800 to the Present (2012) p 171-72.
- ^ Michael Tracy, Government and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1880–1988 (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), p. 94.
- ^ Percy Ashley, Modern Tariff History: Germany–United States–France (New York: Howard Fertig, 1970), p. 86.
- ^ Alexander Gerschenkron, Bread and Democracy in Germany (New York: Howard Fertig, 1966), p. 63.
- ^ Tracy, p. 94.
- ^ Peter Winzen, "Prince Bülow's 'Weltmachtpolitik'" Australian Journal of Politics & History (1976) 22#2 pp 227-242.
- ^ Wawro, Geoffrey (2002). Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792- 1914. Taylor & Francis. p. 180.
- ^ Massie pp. 346-348
- ^ Gen. Alfred von Waldersee, "We are supposed to be pursuing Weltpolitik, if only I knew what that was supposed to be;" quoted in Clark, The Sleepwalkers, p.51
- ^ Geiss, July 1914, p. 23; Ham, p. 58. For an eminent business analysis, see Fischer (1967), p. 13-18
- ^ Bülow to Wilhelm II, cited in Albertini, vol.1, pp. 113-114; Ham, pp. 74-76
- ^ Massie pp. 344-49
- ^ Massie pp. 349
- ^ Massie pp. 353-354
- ^ Massie p. 349
- ^ Massie pp. 360–63
- ^ Massie p.366
- ^ Massie pp. 367–68
- ISBN 0-452-01067-5
- LCCN 63-20288.
- ^ Massie pp. 680-87
- ^ Massie pp. 685-88
- ^ Massie pp. 689-690
- ^ Massie pp. 690-91
- ^ Massie, pp. 692-695
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). "Bülow, Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince von". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. pp. 522–523.
- ISBN 0198812701.
- ^ Massie pp. 138–39
- ^ a b c "Offiziere à la suite der Armee", Rangliste de Königlich Preußischen Armee (in German), Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn, 1914, p. 37 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ a b "Königlich Preussische Ordensliste", Preussische Ordens-Liste (in German), 1, Berlin: Gedruckt in der Reichsdruckerei: 196, 1039, 1886 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ a b "Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (supp.)", Preussische Ordens-Liste (in German), 1, Berlin: Gedruckt in der Reichsdruckerei: 9, 175, 1895 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ "Latest intelligence - the German Tariff Bill". The Times. No. 36951. London. 15 December 1902. p. 5.
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Bayern (1908), "Königliche Orden" pp. 9, 26-27
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1910), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 42, 146
- ^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Herzogtums Braunschweig für 1904. Braunschweig 1904. Meyer. p. 13
- ^ Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste (in German), Darmstadt: Staatsverlag, 1914, pp. 9, 98 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ "Der Großherzogliche Haus-und Verdienst-orden des Herzogs Peter Friedrich Ludwig". Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Oldenburg: 1879. Oldenburg: Schulze. 1879. p. 47.
- ^ "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen". Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Mecklenburg-Strelitz: 1878 (in German). Neustrelitz: Druck und Debit der Buchdruckerei von G. F. Spalding und Sohn. 1878. p. 11.
- ^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 30 Archived 23 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Sachsen (1901). "Königlich Orden". Staatshandbuch für den Königreich Sachsen: 1901. Dresden: Heinrich. pp. 6, 145 – via hathitrust.org.
- ^ a b "Königliche Orden", Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg, Stuttgart: Landesamt, 1907, pp. 50, 119
- ^ "Ritter-Orden", Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie, 1918, pp. 55, 74, 145, retrieved 2 November 2019
- ^ Bille-Hansen, A. C.; Holck, Harald, eds. (1912) [1st pub.:1801]. Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1912 [State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1912] (PDF). Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender (in Danish). Copenhagen: J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri. p. 5. Retrieved 16 September 2019 – via da:DIS Danmark.
- ^ Italy. Ministero dell'interno (1920). Calendario generale del regno d'Italia. p. 57.
- ^ "Latest intelligence - The King of Italy in Berlin". The Times. No. 36859. London. 29 August 1902. p. 3.
- ^ "Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden", Norges Statskalender (in Norwegian), 1922, pp. 1175–1176 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ "Real Orden de Isabel la Católica". Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish). 1923. p. 254. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
- ^ "Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III". Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish). 1923. p. 223. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
- ^ "Caballeros de la insigne orden del toisón de oro". Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish). 1923. p. 213. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
- ^ Sveriges Statskalender (in Swedish), 1909, p. 614, retrieved 6 January 2018 – via runeberg.org
- ^ The London Gazette, issue 27140, p. 8089
Further reading
- Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012)
- Gooch, G.P. Before the war: studies in diplomacy (vol 1 1936) online see chapter on von Bulow pp 187–204.
- Hale, Oron James. "Prince Von Bulow: His Memoirs and His German Critics" Journal of Modern History (1932), 4#2 pp 261–277. online
- ISBN 0-224-03260-7.; extensive coverage of German foreign policy
- Lerman, Katherine Anne. Chancellor as Courtier. Bernhard von Bulow & the Governance of Germany, 1900-1909 (1990) 350pp.
- Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the coming of the Great War (Random House, 1991) excerpt see Dreadnought (book), popular history; pp 134–149.
- Morrow, Ian F. D. "The Foreign Policy of Prince Von Bulow, 1898-1909." Cambridge Historical Journal 4#1 (1932): 63-93. online.
- van Waarden, Betto. "Demands of a transnational public sphere: the diplomatic conflict between Joseph Chamberlain and Bernhard von Bülow and how the mass press shaped expectations for mediatized politics around the turn of the twentieth century." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 26.3 (2019): 476-504. online[dead link]
- Winzen, Peter. "Prince Bülow's 'Weltmachtpolitik.'" Australian Journal of Politics & History (1976) 22#2 pp 227–242.
Primary sources
- Bülow, Bernhard, Fürst von. Imperial Germany (1916) online
- Bülow, Bernhard, Fürst von. Letters; a selection from Prince von Bülow's official correspondence as Imperial Chancellor during the years 1903-1909 online
- Bernhard von Bülow (1932). Memoirs of Prince von Bülow Vol IV, 1849-1897. translated from German by Geoffrey Dunlop and F. A. Voight. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
External links
- Norman Domeier: Bülow, Bernhard, Fürst von, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Chancellor Von Bulows Memoirs, Vol.I. In English at archive.org
- Chancellor Von Bulows Memoirs, Vol.II. In English at archive.org
- Chancellor Von Bulows Memoirs, Vol.IV. In English at archive.org
- Bernhard Bülow, Marie A. Lewenz (1914). Imperial Germany. Dodd, Mead.
- Bernhard Bülow (1907). Fürst Bülows reden nebst urkundlichen Beiträgen zu seiner Politik. Reimer. p. 1.
- Newspaper clippings about Bernhard von Bülow in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW