Beryllium
Beryllium | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pronunciation | /bəˈrɪliəm/ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance | white-gray metallic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Be) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Beryllium in the periodic table | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 292 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 16.443 J/(mol·K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1798) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
First isolation | Friedrich Wöhler & Antoine Bussy (1828) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isotopes of beryllium | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Beryllium is a
In structural applications, the combination of high
The commercial use of beryllium requires the use of appropriate dust control equipment and industrial controls at all times because of the toxicity of inhaled beryllium-containing dusts that can cause a chronic life-threatening allergic disease in some people called berylliosis.[10] Berylliosis causes pneumonia and other associated respiratory illness.
Characteristics
Physical properties
Beryllium is a steel gray and hard
Nuclear properties
Naturally occurring beryllium, save for slight contamination by the
The single primordial beryllium isotope 9Be also undergoes a (n,2n) neutron reaction with neutron energies over about 1.9 MeV, to produce 8Be, which almost immediately breaks into two alpha particles. Thus, for high-energy neutrons, beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. This nuclear reaction is:[12]
- 9
4Be
+ n → 2 4
2He
+ 2 n
Neutrons are liberated when beryllium nuclei are struck by energetic alpha particles[11] producing the nuclear reaction
- 9
4Be
+ 4
2He
→ 12
6C
+ n
where 4
2He
is an alpha particle and 12
6C
is a carbon-12 nucleus.[12]
Beryllium also releases neutrons under bombardment by gamma rays. Thus, natural beryllium bombarded either by alphas or gammas from a suitable radioisotope is a key component of most radioisotope-powered nuclear reaction neutron sources for the laboratory production of free neutrons.
Small amounts of tritium are liberated when 9
4Be
nuclei absorb low energy neutrons in the three-step nuclear reaction
- 9
4Be
+ n → 4
2He
+ 6
2He
, 6
2He
→ 6
3Li
+ β−, 6
3Li
+ n → 4
2He
+ 3
1H
6
2He
has a half-life of only 0.8 seconds, β− is an electron, and 6
3Li
has a high neutron absorption cross section. Tritium is a radioisotope of concern in nuclear reactor waste streams.[13]
Optical properties
As a metal, beryllium is transparent or translucent to most wavelengths of X-rays and gamma rays, making it useful for the output windows of X-ray tubes and other such apparatus.[14]
Isotopes and nucleosynthesis
Both stable and unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, but the radioisotopes do not last long. It is believed that most of the stable beryllium in the universe was originally created in the interstellar medium when
Radioactive cosmogenic
8Be has a very short half-life of about 8×10−17 s that contributes to its significant cosmological role, as elements heavier than beryllium could not have been produced by nuclear fusion in the
The 2s electrons of beryllium may contribute to chemical bonding. Therefore, when 7Be decays by L-electron capture, it does so by taking electrons from its atomic orbitals that may be participating in bonding. This makes its decay rate dependent to a measurable degree upon its chemical surroundings – a rare occurrence in nuclear decay.[21]
The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is 16Be, which decays through neutron emission with a half-life of 6.5×10−22 s.[22] The exotic isotopes 11Be and 14Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[23] This phenomenon can be understood as the nuclei of 11Be and 14Be have, respectively, 1 and 4 neutrons orbiting substantially outside the classical Fermi 'waterdrop' model of the nucleus.
Occurrence
The Sun has a concentration of 0.1
Beryllium is found in over 100 minerals, The green color in gem-quality forms of beryl comes from varying amounts of chromium (about 2% for emerald).[32]
The two main ores of beryllium, beryl and bertrandite, are found in Argentina, Brazil, India, Madagascar, Russia and the United States.[32] Total world reserves of beryllium ore are greater than 400,000 tonnes.[32]
Production
The extraction of beryllium from its compounds is a difficult process due to its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures, and its ability to reduce water when its oxide film is removed. Currently the United States, China and Kazakhstan are the only three countries involved in the industrial-scale extraction of beryllium.[33] Kazakhstan produces beryllium from a concentrate stockpiled before the breakup of the Soviet Union around 1991. This resource had become nearly depleted by mid-2010s.[34]
Production of beryllium in Russia was halted in 1997, and is planned to be resumed in the 2020s.[35][36]
Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineral beryl, which is either sintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture. The sintering process involves mixing beryl with sodium fluorosilicate and soda at 770 °C (1,420 °F) to form sodium fluoroberyllate, aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide.[9] Beryllium hydroxide is precipitated from a solution of sodium fluoroberyllate and sodium hydroxide in water. Extraction of beryllium using the melt method involves grinding beryl into a powder and heating it to 1,650 °C (3,000 °F).[9] The melt is quickly cooled with water and then reheated 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) in concentrated sulfuric acid, mostly yielding beryllium sulfate and aluminium sulfate.[9] Aqueous ammonia is then used to remove the aluminium and sulfur, leaving beryllium hydroxide.
Beryllium hydroxide created using either the sinter or melt method is then converted into beryllium fluoride or beryllium chloride. To form the fluoride, aqueous ammonium hydrogen fluoride is added to beryllium hydroxide to yield a precipitate of ammonium tetrafluoroberyllate, which is heated to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) to form beryllium fluoride.[9] Heating the fluoride to 900 °C (1,650 °F) with magnesium forms finely divided beryllium, and additional heating to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F) creates the compact metal.[9] Heating beryllium hydroxide forms the oxide, which becomes beryllium chloride when combined with carbon and chlorine. Electrolysis of molten beryllium chloride is then used to obtain the metal.[9]
Chemical properties
A beryllium atom has the electronic configuration [He] 2s2. The predominant oxidation state of beryllium is +2; the beryllium atom has lost both of its valence electrons. Lower oxidation states complexes of beryllium are exceedingly rare. For example, bis(carbene) compounds proposed to contain beryllium in the 0- and +1-oxidation state have been reported, although these claims have proved controversial.[37][38]
A stable complex with a Be-Be bond, which formally features beryllium in the +1 oxidation state, has been described.
At room temperature, the surface of beryllium forms a 1−10 nm-thick oxide passivation layer that prevents further reactions with air, except for gradual thickening of the oxide up to about 25 nm. When heated above about 500 °C, oxidation into the bulk metal progresses along grain boundaries.[40] Once the metal is ignited in air by heating above the oxide melting point around 2500 °C, beryllium burns brilliantly, forming a mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride. Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H2SO4, but not in nitric acid or water as this forms the oxide. This behavior is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium also dissolves in alkali solutions.[9][41]
Binary compounds of beryllium(II) are polymeric in the solid state.
The halides BeX2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I) have a linear monomeric molecular structure in the gas phase.[41] Complexes of the halides are formed with one or more ligands donating at total of two pairs of electrons. Such compounds obey the octet rule. Other 4-coordinate complexes such as the aqua-ion [Be(H2O)4]2+ also obey the octet rule.
Aqueous solutions
Solutions of beryllium salts, such as beryllium sulfate and beryllium nitrate, are acidic because of hydrolysis of the [Be(H2O)4]2+ ion. The concentration of the first hydrolysis product, [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+, is less than 1% of the beryllium concentration. The most stable hydrolysis product is the trimeric ion [Be3(OH)3(H2O)6]3+. Beryllium hydroxide, Be(OH)2, is insoluble in water at pH 5 or more. Consequently, beryllium compounds are generally insoluble at biological pH. Because of this, inhalation of beryllium metal dust by people leads to the development of the fatal condition of berylliosis. Be(OH)2 dissolves in strongly alkaline solutions.[43]
Beryllium(II) forms few complexes with monodentate ligands because the water molecules in the aquo-ion, [Be(H2O)4]2+ are bound very strongly to the beryllium ion. Notable exceptions are the series of water-soluble complexes with the fluoride ion:[44]
Beryllium(II) forms many complexes with bidentate ligands containing oxygen-donor atoms.[43] The species [Be3O(H2PO4)6]2- is notable for having a 3-coordinate oxide ion at its center. Basic beryllium acetate, Be4O(OAc)6, has an oxide ion surrounded by a tetrahedron of beryllium atoms.
With organic ligands, such as the malonate ion, the acid deprotonates when forming the complex. The donor atoms are two oxygens.
Aliphatic
Beryllium has generally a rather poor affinity for
Organic chemistry
Organoberyllium chemistry is limited to academic research due to the cost and toxicity of beryllium, beryllium derivatives and reagents required for the introduction of beryllium, such as beryllium chloride. Organometallic beryllium compounds are known to be highly reactive[49] Examples of known organoberyllium compounds are dineopentylberyllium,[50] beryllocene (Cp2Be),[51][52][53][54] diallylberyllium (by exchange reaction of diethyl beryllium with triallyl boron),[55] bis(1,3-trimethylsilylallyl)beryllium,[56] Be(mes)2,[49] and (beryllium(I) complex) diberyllocene.[39] Ligands can also be aryls[57] and alkynyls.[58]
History
The mineral beryl, which contains beryllium, has been used at least since the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt.[59] In the first century CE, Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder mentioned in his encyclopedia Natural History that beryl and emerald ("smaragdus") were similar.[60] The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, written in the third or fourth century CE, contains notes on how to prepare artificial emerald and beryl.[60]
Early analyses of emeralds and beryls by
In a 1798 paper read before the
Friedrich Wöhler[67] and Antoine Bussy[68] independently isolated beryllium in 1828 by the chemical reaction of metallic potassium with beryllium chloride, as follows:
- BeCl2 + 2 K → 2 KCl + Be
Using an alcohol lamp, Wöhler heated alternating layers of beryllium chloride and potassium in a wired-shut platinum crucible. The above reaction immediately took place and caused the crucible to become white hot. Upon cooling and washing the resulting gray-black powder he saw that it was made of fine particles with a dark metallic luster.[69] The highly reactive potassium had been produced by the electrolysis of its compounds, a process discovered 21 years before. The chemical method using potassium yielded only small grains of beryllium from which no ingot of metal could be cast or hammered.
The direct electrolysis of a molten mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride by Paul Lebeau in 1898 resulted in the first pure (99.5 to 99.8%) samples of beryllium.[69] However, industrial production started only after the First World War. The original industrial involvement included subsidiaries and scientists related to the Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation in Cleveland, Ohio, and Siemens & Halske AG in Berlin. In the US, the process was ruled by Hugh S. Cooper, director of The Kemet Laboratories Company. In Germany, the first commercially successful process for producing beryllium was developed in 1921 by Alfred Stock and Hans Goldschmidt.[70]
A sample of beryllium was bombarded with
Beryllium production saw a rapid increase during World War II, due to the rising demand for hard beryllium-copper alloys and
Electrolysis of a mixture of
Pure beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957, even though it had been used as an alloying metal to harden and toughen copper much earlier.
Between 1998 and 2008, the world's production of beryllium had decreased from 343 to about 200 tonnes. It then increased to 230 tonnes by 2018, of which 170 tonnes came from the United States.[75][76]
Etymology
Named after beryl, a semiprecious mineral, from which it was first isolated.[77][78][79]
Applications
Radiation windows
Because of its low atomic number and very low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and still one of the most important applications of beryllium is in radiation windows for X-ray tubes.[32] Extreme demands are placed on purity and cleanliness of beryllium to avoid artifacts in the X-ray images. Thin beryllium foils are used as radiation windows for X-ray detectors, and the extremely low absorption minimizes the heating effects caused by high intensity, low energy X-rays typical of synchrotron radiation. Vacuum-tight windows and beam-tubes for radiation experiments on synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively from beryllium. In scientific setups for various X-ray emission studies (e.g., energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the sample holder is usually made of beryllium because its emitted X-rays have much lower energies (≈100 eV) than X-rays from most studied materials.[11]
Low
Mechanical applications
Because of its stiffness, light weight and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and
Mixing about 2.0% beryllium into
The high elastic stiffness of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. in
Beryllium was also used for cantilevers in high performance phonograph cartridge styli, where its extreme stiffness and low density allowed for tracking weights to be reduced to 1 gram, yet still track high frequency passages with minimal distortion.[89]
An earlier major application of beryllium was in
To reduce costs, beryllium can be alloyed with significant amounts of aluminium, resulting in the AlBeMet alloy (a trade name). This blend is cheaper than pure beryllium, while still retaining many desirable properties.
Mirrors
Beryllium
The James Webb Space Telescope has 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors, each plated with a thin layer of gold.[90] Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 K, the mirror is made of gold-plated beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass – and remains more uniform – in such temperatures.[91] For the same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal.[92]
Magnetic applications
Beryllium is non-magnetic. Therefore, tools fabricated out of beryllium-based materials are used by naval or military
Nuclear applications
Thin plates or foils of beryllium are sometimes used in
Beryllium is also commonly used in some
Beryllium is also used in fuel fabrication for
Beryllium is also used at the
Acoustics
The low weight and high rigidity of beryllium make it useful as a material for high-frequency
Some high-end phonograph cartridges used beryllium cantilevers to improve tracking by reducing mass.[106]
Electronic
Beryllium is a
Healthcare
Beryllium is a component of several dental alloys.[110][111]
Toxicity and safety
Hazards | |
---|---|
GHS labelling:[112] | |
Danger | |
H301, H315, H317, H319, H330, H335, H350i, H372 | |
P201, P202, P280, P302, P304, P305+P351+P338, P310, P340, P352 | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) |
Biological effects
Approximately 35 micrograms of beryllium is found in the average human body, an amount not considered harmful.[113] Beryllium is chemically similar to magnesium and therefore can displace it from enzymes, which causes them to malfunction.[113] Because Be2+ is a highly charged and small ion, it can easily get into many tissues and cells, where it specifically targets cell nuclei, inhibiting many enzymes, including those used for synthesizing DNA. Its toxicity is exacerbated by the fact that the body has no means to control beryllium levels, and once inside the body, beryllium cannot be removed.[114]
Inhalation
Chronic beryllium disease (CBD), or
Occupational exposure
In the US, the
Exposure to beryllium in the workplace can lead to a sensitization immune response and can over time develop chronic beryllium disease.[119] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the United States researches these effects in collaboration with a major manufacturer of beryllium products. NIOSH also conducts genetic research on sensitization and CBD, independently of this collaboration.[119]
Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. A survey found that about 5% of workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in 1949 in the United States had beryllium-related lung diseases.[120] Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It killed some early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert L. Anderson.[121]
Beryllium may be found in coal slag. When the slag is formulated into an abrasive agent for blasting paint and rust from hard surfaces, the beryllium can become airborne and become a source of exposure.[122]
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.[123]
Detection
Early researchers undertook the highly hazardous practice of identifying beryllium and its various compounds from its sweet taste. Identification is now performed using safe modern diagnostics techniques.[9] A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been developed and published as an international voluntary consensus standard ASTM D7202. The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing up to 100 times more sensitive detection than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and detection of refractory beryllium oxide and siliceous beryllium in minute concentrations (ASTM D7458).[124][125] The NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods contains methods for measuring occupational exposures to beryllium.[126]
Notes
- ^ The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are αa = 12.03×10−6/K, αc = 8.88×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 10.98×10−6/K.
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Further reading
- Newman LS (2003). "Beryllium". Chemical & Engineering News. 81 (36): 38. .
- Mroz MM, Balkissoon R, Newman LS. "Beryllium". In: Bingham E, Cohrssen B, Powell C (eds.) Patty's Toxicology, Fifth Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons 2001, 177–220.
- Walsh, KA, Beryllium Chemistry and Processing. Vidal, EE. et al. Eds. 2009, Materials Park, OH:ASM International.
- Beryllium Lymphocyte Proliferation Testing (BeLPT). DOE Specification 1142–2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2001.
- 2007, Eric Scerri,The periodic table: Its story and its significance, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9
External links
- ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Beryllium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
- It's Elemental – Beryllium
- MSDS: ESPI Metals
- Beryllium at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Beryllium Page
- National Supplemental Screening Program (Oak Ridge Associated Universities)
- Historic Price of Beryllium in USA